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Article

Influence of Immersive Virtual Coordination Training on Launch Accuracy: Randomized Controlled Trial

by
Adriana López Rodríguez
1 and
José María Cancela-Carral
1,2,*
1
Department of Special Didactics, Faculty of Education and Sports Science, University of Vigo, 36005 Pontevedra, Spain
2
HealthyFit Research Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, 36312 Vigo, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 3269; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063269
Submission received: 5 February 2025 / Revised: 11 March 2025 / Accepted: 12 March 2025 / Published: 17 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Wearable Sensors and Image Processing in Assistive and Rehabilitative Technologies)
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Abstract

:
(1) Background: Throwing accuracy is one of the main factors that affect performance in sports that require this motor skill. There are multiple training methods that are based on the basic principles of motor learning, but the emergence of immersive virtual reality has brought about a profound change in training methodology. The objective of the present study was to analyze the effect of a coordination training program that takes place in immersive virtual reality environments on manual throwing accuracy in a school population. (2) Methods: A total of 58 schoolchildren (16.21 ± 0.41 years) volunteered and completed the study. The explosive strength of the upper body, level of physical activity, speed and accuracy were evaluated. (3) Results: the findings show the existence of significant differences between both groups (experimental–control), showing that the developed program has positive effects on strength parameters (3.86 ± 0.68 vs. 4.06 ± 0.67 m); (3.91 ± 1.07 vs. 3.71 ± 1.22 m), speed (2.26 ± 0.28 vs. 2.44 ± 0.27 s); (2.26 ± 0.22 vs. 2.03 ± 0.19 s) and accuracy (820.00 ± 794.12 vs. 1630.00 ± 854.66 pts); (996.43 ± 936.69 vs. 986.29 ± 737.03 pts) compared to the control group. (4) Conclusions: the coordinative physical exercise program developed in immersive virtual reality environments has had a positive impact on the accuracy of manual throwing in schoolchildren.

1. Introduction

Throw accuracy can be defined as the extent to which an object reaches its intended target with the minimum possible deviation [1]. The purpose of throwing is to impact the environment through an impact with a moving object. We can say that the manipulative motor competence of throwing is a typically human motor task that differentiates us from other members of the zoological scale. Speed, distance and throwing accuracy are the three functional aspects that have been the most studied in terms of the motor competence of handling mobiles. These three factors have the common characteristic of being easily quantifiable [2]. Among the factors that influence the quality of throwing accuracy, we can observe the following: (a) the technical ability of the thrower has an impact on throwing [3]; (b) environmental conditions (wind and humidity) can significantly alter the trajectory of an object [4]; (c) the characteristics of the object (the design and physical properties of the object) affect its behavior in the air [5]; (d) physical strength and neuromuscular coordination play an important role in the ability to make accurate throws [6]; (e) experience allows athletes to anticipate and adapt to variations in throwing conditions [7]; and (f) psychological aspects can also have an impact on throwing. The ability to handle pressure and maintain concentration is crucial for accuracy in competitive situations [8,9,10]. In recent years, the advancements in ICT and the emergence of immersive virtual reality (IVR) have brought about profound changes in different areas of our lives [11]. According to Miguélez-Juan et al. [12], we can define IVR as a reality that allows an individual to immerse themselves and project real movements in multidimensional scenarios generated through computer systems using visors or glasses and other devices that capture the position and rotation of the body. By immersing users in a virtual environment, situations can be simulated in a controlled space, allowing them to practice and perfect techniques without the limitations of the real world [13]. This type of training offers several advantages: 1. Repeating physical tasks in a safe and pressure-free environment, which can help build confidence [10]. 2. Analyzing and adjusting technical aspects in real time, which facilitates error correction and continuous improvement. 3. Instant feedback provided by virtual reality, which is also invaluable.
The use of IVR to improve manipulative skills (throwing, catching, hitting, manipulating) has only been used in rehabilitation contexts [13], with very good results. Manipulative motor skills are skills that allow people to interact with objects through precise and controlled movements, such as throwing, catching, hitting or manipulating [14]. These skills are fundamental to children’s physical and cognitive development, helping them to coordinate their movements and develop the strength and dexterity needed to perform everyday activities. However, some children may face problems in the development of these motor skills. This may be due to a variety of reasons, such as: (1). a lack of play opportunities; (2). coordination problems; (3). emotional factors; or (4). the presence of developmental disorders.
To address these problems, it is important to foster a supportive environment where children can practice and improve their motor skills in a fun and pressure-free way and IVR is the ideal environment for this purpose. In light of this, this research study is based on the hypothesis that coordination training developed in IVR environments will generate greater improvements in throwing accuracy than traditional coordination training in schoolchildren.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Design

A randomized controlled experimental study was carried out to evaluate the effects of 8 weeks of physical coordinative exercise developed in IVR environments (exergames: Litesport and Beat Saber) on manual throwing accuracy in schoolchildren. The variables analyzed were the following: throwing accuracy and basic physical abilities (upper body strength and speed). This study was approved by the local clinical research ethics committee (CP-020524-38) and was performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

2.2. Participants

Recruitment of the sample took place at the school (IES Santa Irene, Vigo, Spain). All students were enrolled at the high school level and had to meet the following inclusion criteria: (a) present a signed informed consent from their tutor/guardian/parent, (b) be aged between 16–17 years old, (c) belong to the school where the study was carried out and be studying for their AS-levels. The exclusion criteria were as follows: (a) be suffering from any pathology that may be worsened by participation in a physical exercise program developed in IVR environments, (b) have previous experience in the use of IVR, (c) not be able to perform the physical assessment tests. The participants who did not meet 100% adherence to the program were excluded from the final analysis. The calculation of the sample size was carried out through G*power analysis, revealing the requirement for a minimum sample size of 55 participants for a power of 95 and α value of 0.05.
Before the start of the study, the school management was informed about the objectives of the research and the activities to be carried out during the study. The study had an initial sample of 61 students. Finally, 58 students (16.21 ± 0.41 years; 48.3% male) participated in the study. The sample was distributed into an experimental group and a control group considering sex, age and body mass index. The control group was made up of 28 students (16.18 ± 0.39 years; 50% male; 23.79 ± 5.37 kg/m2). The experimental group was made up of a total of 30 students (16.23 ± 0.43 years; 53.3% male; 21.53 ± 4.59 kg/m2), with no significant differences between the groups.

2.3. Procedures

Before carrying out the coordinated physical exercise program developed in IVR settings, the participants’ parents or guardians read and signed an informed consent form. The project lasted 8 weeks and evaluations of strength (two-handed medicine ball—3 kg—throwing test from a sitting position), throwing precision (goal throwing test) and speed (10-meter speed test from a standing position) took place at two points during the project—before the intervention in order to establish a baseline level and at the end of the intervention in order to determine the possible modifications in the evaluated aspects. In addition, a record sheet of the sessions the participants attended, including the characteristics of the training, was created to provide information about the sessions.
The variable body mass (kg) was measured with a digital scale (Soehnle brand, Soehnle Industrial Solutions, Backnang, Germany) with an accuracy of 100 g. The measurement was carried out with the students standing in the center of the platform, barefoot and without support. Height (m) was measured with a Handac stadiometer (Holtain Ltd., Crosswell, UK) with an accuracy of 1.0 mm [15]. The students had to stand with their heels together, looking straight ahead and their whole body straight.

2.4. Physical Activity Sessions

The sample was randomly distributed into two groups (control group and experimental group). The experimental group underwent a coordination training program in IVR environments. The IVR sessions (exergames: Litesport and Beat Saber; Figure 1) were conducted with the Oculus Quest 2 HMD and two controllers (Oculus VR, Menlo Park, CA, USA).
The coordination training program included an adaptation session with the glasses (First-Step), 8 sessions of the exergame Litesport (first 4 sessions focusing on boxing to promote reaction speed and hand–eye coordination and the next 4 on total body workouts, dynamic and interactive training, lower body strength, agility) and 8 sessions of the exergame Beat Saber (agility, reaction speed, hand–eye coordination, laterality and rhythm).
Figure 2 shows students executing the exergame tasks. A total of 16 sessions were carried out, with a frequency of 2 sessions per week over the 8 weeks of training. The duration of each session of the experimental group was approximately 4–5 min. The control group developed a traditional hand–eye coordination program in pairs for 10 min consisting of passes of a handball of different sizes and at variable distances according to the physical education teacher’s instructions. The control group and the experimental group maintained their participation during physical education classes led by the schoolteacher.

2.5. Testing Procedures

The participants performed test measurements before and after the intervention of the coordination program. The order of development of the tests was the same in both measurements and each assessment was carried out by the same researcher.
The speed of movement and the agility of the students were evaluated with a 10-meter speed test from a standing position. The speed of movement was included as a variable in this study due to its influence on synchronized sequencing from proximal to distal segments (kinetic chain of the technical throwing gesture), favoring the transmission of speed and precision to the ball [16,17,18]. The test is carried out with the participant positioned at the starting line until, at the command of the evaluator, they must cover the indicated distance (10 m) in the shortest possible time [19]. The 10m speed test, also called the 10m sprint time, is a test widely used in different fields [20,21,22] to evaluate the acceleration of athletes, obtaining high values of reliability (90% confidence limits = 0.01–0.02 s; typical error: <1%) and validation (trial variability = 1.1–1.2; 95% confidence limits = 0.05–0.10 s).
Throwing execution is a fundamental component of sports performance in players who practice throwing sports (basketball, handball, water polo, …). The use of assessment methods that are reliable, valid and easy to administer is essential [23]. The assessment of throwing execution can be carried out using different measurement procedures, including throwing accuracy [24]. Taking into account the research by Freeston et al. [24], whose objective was to describe throwing performance in elite water polo players through accuracy, the test used in this study (an adaptation of the Battery COFISA and Alternate Hand Wall Toss tests) was chosen, with scores decided by establishing different zones depending on the difficulty of landing the throw. For the evaluation of throwing accuracy, 5 throws towards a goal were used, where the students had to introduce a size 2 ball (handball, 375 g) with a diameter of 54–56 cm from a distance of 4 m into a net that had 5 holes corresponding to the following scores: 2 holes worth 1000 points (upper right and left angles), 2 holes worth 500 points (lower right and left angles) and 1 hole worth 100 points. The same hole could not be used to gain points repeatedly. The students performed the 5 ball throws with their dominant hand. The total score was determined by adding the points of the successful throws in the previously determined zones (the higher the score, the greater the precision of the throws). This test is an adaptation and combination of two tests that measure throwing coordination (the Battery COFISA and Alternate Hand Wall Toss tests). This test evaluated eye–hand coordination and throwing accuracy, referring to a sequence in which the brain understands visual information from the eyes and guides hand movements efficiently. The Alternate hand Wall Toss test is widely used in the field of sports medicine [25,26,27] and presents high construct validity (r = 0.85) and high reliability (intraclass correlation coefficients = 0.85–0.93).
The explosive strength of the upper body was assessed using the two-handed seated medicine ball throwing test. The subject throws the medicine ball (3 kg) from a seated position with the back at a right angle and the legs at a 90° angle; the ball is thrown without getting up, with two hands behind the head and the elbows at ear level as far as possible [28]. This test has a high correlatability and association with other tests that measure bilateral upper body power [29,30,31]. Each participant made 2 attempts and the distance (m) from the throw line to the place where the ball first contacted the ground was measured [32]. The validity and reliability of this test has been verified [33], with good construct validity (r = 0.614) and high reliability (intraclass correlation coefficients = 0.95–0.98) being observed.
As for the intrinsic aspects of the IVR program, safety was assessed by the simulator sickness questionnaire [34] and personal experience was assessed by the game experience questionnaire post-game [35].

2.6. Statistical Analyses

A descriptive analysis was carried out for the main variables under study, which were described through measures of central tendency (mean, standard deviation) and percentages, as well as minimum and maximum. This analysis was carried out by stratifying the sample by group.
In order to evaluate the effect of a coordination training program developed through IVR on the accuracy and effectiveness of throws, a descriptive and inferential analysis was carried out between the two data collection points and groups. The normality of the distribution of the values of the variables under study was checked using the Shapiro–Wilk test (p > 0.05) and the normality criteria were met. It was verified that the experimental and control groups were statistically homogenous in terms of the variables under study; this analysis was carried out through the t-test for independent samples. Subsequently, an intragroup analysis was carried out using the t-test for related samples, thus identifying the effect of the program on the experimental group. Finally, a MANOVA (2 × 2) multivariate analysis was carried out, considering the time (initial and final) and the group (experimental and control), to identify the intergroup effect.
All analyses were carried out using IBM SPSS V29 statistical software. The significance level adopted was p < 0.05.

3. Results

Of the 61 participants who gave signed consent, 3 of them did not start the study because they did not meet the inclusion criteria. A total of 58 participants with a mean age of 16.21 ± 0.41 years, a mean weight of 64.06 ± 15.56 kg, a body mass index of 22.62 and a mean height of 168.11 ± 8.50 cm were involved in the study, with 28 (48.3%) being female and 30 (51.7%) being male.
With regard to the exergames used in the program, we should indicate that in Litesport’s Boxing modality, improvements can be perceived in all the parameters analyzed except Good Hits, which shows a slight worsening between the start and end of the program (96.73 ± 3.39 vs. 95.73 ± 5.47). The parameters of Score (1644.63 ± 782.77 vs. 3851.47 ± 2050.13), Beststreak (best streak of good hits) (137.46 ± 79.57 vs. 203.80 ± 112.69) and Calories (13.73 ± 5.50 vs. 27.07 ± 13.32) stand out. In the Total Body modality, improvements were observed in all the parameters analyzed, especially in the results of Score (4368.60 ± 1904.71 vs. 7924.30 ± 3124.82), Beststreak (81.90 ± 66.01 vs. 153.60 ± 75.51), Calories (21.30 ± 10.89 vs. 37.10 ± 6.45) and Ropeswings (good and fast rope movements) (71.88 ± 24.44 vs. 92.91 ± 11.81), where the improvements were most noticeable. The data obtained from the exergame Beat Saber at the beginning and end of the training program show improvements in all the parameters analyzed, particularly Good Cut (97.41 ± 2.57 vs. 98.72 ± 1.27), Score (104,404 ± 27,469 vs. 127,936 ± 21,068) and Rank, between the first and last session. In the analyzed parameter Rank (classification), we noticed that at the beginning of the training program no participant obtained the maximum rank, SS, and 46.7% of participants achieved rank A, which was the third-best score. However, at the end of the training program, 10% obtained the maximum SS rank score and 50% of the participants achieved the S rank, which was the second-best score.
Table 1 shows the intergroup (t student) and intragroup (MANOVA 2 × 2) results obtained for the medicine ball test, speed test and points-to-goal/accuracy test. If we focus on the experimental group, in the medicine ball test, which evaluates upper body strength, speed and accuracy (points to goal), significant improvements are shown after 8 weeks of intervention (3.86 ± 0.68 vs. 4.06 ± 0.67); (2.26 ± 0.28 vs. 2.44 ± 0.27); (820.00 ± 794.12 vs. 1630.00 ± 854.66). Regarding the data analysis carried out on the control group, we observed worsening in the parameters analyzed, with significant worsening being perceived for the speed test (2.26 ± 0.22 vs. 2.03 ± 0.19). The multivariate analysis reflected differential effects in favor of the experimental group.
Table 2 shows the data obtained after the development of the coordination training program in IVR environments. We observe that this program obtained high positive experiences (2.66 ± 0.94) and provoked a high physical effort (1.27 ± 0.77) generating reduced adverse symptomatology, indicating that it is a usable and safe program.
In Figure 3 and Figure 4 we can observe the associations between the throwing accuracy test (pts) and both the sprint speed test (s) and the upper body strength levels (m), taking into account the initial and final moments of each group. In the figures we can see how higher or lower levels of strength or speed imply lower throwing accuracy. That is, there is an intermediate interval of strength and speed in which greater throwing accuracy is achieved. These results can be observed in both groups; however, the throwing accuracy levels (pts) are higher in the experimental group than in the control at the final moment.

4. Discussion

The aim of the present study was to define a coordination training program developed in IVR environments and to evaluate its effect on manual accuracy in a school population.
Accuracy is a skill related to coordination abilities and is one of the main factors that affect throwing performance. It was observed that, after 8 weeks of intervention by carrying out a coordination program in IVR environments, the experimental group showed significant improvements in comparison to the control group in throwing accuracy. It is widely known that motor skills facilitate the learning of the specific technical–tactical elements of different sports disciplines [36]. In any sport modality, success is determined by a necessary mastery of motor skills [37].
The results of this research reaffirm the indications of Spieszny et al. [38] regarding the influence of motor skill training (coordination) on the accuracy of throws. Other studies also show that coordination is an important factor in the application of the technique of each sport, as well as its effectiveness during execution [39,40]. Our results agree with those presented in studies by Silva and Ayala [41] as well as Spieszny et al. [38], where, after applying training with coordination and technical activities, it was possible to improve the accuracy of passing execution. These improvements are justified by the organizational changes in the neuronal connections of the primary motor cortex, as well as by the proliferation of output pathways from the motor areas in the medial wall of the hemisphere [42]. Corticospinal neurons (CSN), which provide direct cortical outputs to the spinal cord, play a crucial role in motor control and are also involved in these improvements [43].
Strength, understood as the basis of all bodily dynamism and the main source of movement, will be present in any type of motor activity or movement, such as using the arm to throw a ball in one direction. Developing muscle power is a crucial element of training to improve the accuracy of a throw [44]. The results obtained in the strength values are positive, with significant differences being found for the experimental group compared to the control group. Similar results were found by Ertanto et al. [45] as well as Pérez and García [46], who affirm that through coordination training the maximum and explosive strength of the lower limbs can be improved. Pérez and García [26] state that in general terms explosive strength, or the ability to quickly express a force, is related to muscular coordination. Jaimes [47] concludes that intermuscular and intramuscular coordination have a great influence on the development of strength and are the main factors that lead to improvements in it, so if coordinated training is performed, improvements in strength levels will be perceived. This motor aspect is something that is obviously present in any type of throwing, as throwing a ball or a dart requires a minimum amount of strength, which is achieved through muscle contraction, which triggers muscle tension. Ibujés [48] concludes that improvements in strength are essential for the performance of an accurate throw as the greater the explosive strength, the greater the throwing accuracy—these data agree with those obtained in our study, as the experimental group showed improvements in strength and obtained better results in throwing accuracy.
Finally, regarding the basic physical capacity of movement speed, which refers to a fast and coordinated movement, it is known that coordination has a decisive impact on the speed and quality of the learning process of specific skills and techniques, such as throwing accuracy [49]. The results of this study affirm and follow this theory since, after carrying out coordination training, significant improvements were obtained in this parameter in the experimental group. Our data also agree with those obtained by Cano and Coronado [50], who obtained positive results regarding initial speed during weightlifting after applying a coordinative training program. Bermúdez and Montenegro [51] obtained an increase in the movement speed of boys and girls through coordination work. Rosero-Duque et al. [52] state that the training of coordination skills not only facilitates the learning of technical gestures, but also influences the efficiency of movement and its speed.
Cauraugh, Gabert and White [53] have suggested the existence of a negative relationship between high speed and accuracy—that is, when an athlete executes a technical gesture at very high speed, the accuracy of the same is reduced. This may be due to the fact that by increasing the speed of the execution of a motor pattern, we lose control of the execution. Data that follow the same pattern as those obtained in the present study observe that accuracy decreases at high speeds and when the speed decreases the accuracy stabilizes, tending towards higher precision values. However, if we analyze this relationship (speed–accuracy) in high sports performance, the data are not so conclusive, since the studies by Zapardiel Cortés et al. [54] indicate that in the sport of handball, scoring a goal or not scoring a goal is not affected by the speed of the throw.
Training hand–eye coordination is essential to improve manipulative skills. Oculomotor interactions are fundamental for understanding how the brain creates internal models and generates movement within the space we perceive. Oculomotor reaction times reflect the integration of visual information, perceptual decisions and motor movements to perform a specific task [55]. With the development of technology, new opportunities have arisen to improve hand–eye coordination and precision using new techniques, such as IVR [56]. Athletes who use IVR become more involved and motivated in their training sessions, increasing their attention and ability to perform certain movements correctly [57]. The results obtained in our study confirm that the use of IVR is more effective in improving throwing accuracy in adolescents than traditional training. However, due to the youth of this technology, we must be cautious when generalizing the results, since the use of immersive virtual reality can generate adverse symptoms such as dizziness, fatigue and general discomfort if the participants of a prolonged immersion session have not undergone an adequate familiarization process [58]. Another aspect to take into account is the quality of immersive virtual reality; virtual reality environments must be very precise to help the participant in motor control and perception, facilitating the execution of the task [59]. Kim et al. [60] also revealed that when using IVR, a group of older adults found that the positions of 3D objects were more difficult to predict than those in 2D, perhaps due to the decrease in binocular vision and the stereopsis typical of this group—factors that are crucial when perceiving depth [61]—which indicates that age can be a limiting factor when using IVR. The completion of tasks developed in immersive virtual reality environments may be affected by the high cognitive load added by the use of virtual reality [62].
The development of this research work has identified the following limitations. First, the short duration of the program. Although the development of the program lasted 8 weeks and significant improvements were observed, we believe that these improvements could be greater if the program had a longer duration. Another limitation is the duration of each session (4–5 min), as it is expected that if the duration was longer, more differential effects could be generated in the parameters analyzed. The different structures used in the hand–eye coordination programs developed for each of the groups may be an aspect that has influenced the results, since, due to the use of IVR, the experimental group’s program was more structured, attractive, gamified and intense than the one used by the control group. Finally, another limitation that must be pointed out is the sample size (n = 58). It is necessary to replicate the study in future research with a larger sample size to ratify the results presented here.

5. Conclusions

The proposed coordination training program (immersive environment, type of exergame used, frequency, duration and intensity) was suitable for application in the school population and no adverse effects were reported. The development of the immersive coordinative training program resulted in improvements in the parameters of strength, speed and precision and also increased the level of physical activity in the student population; it could be an alternative method for the application of physical training in schoolchildren.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.L.R.; methodology, J.M.C.-C.; IBM SPSS V29 statistical software, J.M.C.-C.; formal analysis, J.M.C.-C.; investigation, A.L.R. and J.M.C.-C.; resources, J.M.C.-C.; data curation, J.M.C.-C.; writing—original draft preparation, A.L.R.; writing—review and editing, A.L.R. and J.M.C.-C.; visualization, J.M.C.-C.; supervision, J.M.C.-C.; project administration, A.L.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Local Research Ethics Committee (CP-020524-38, approval date is 5 February 2024).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The dataset used in this research project is guarded by the main researcher at the University of Vigo, meeting the criteria of anonymity, and is available to any researcher who requests it.

Acknowledgments

We thank the physical education department and the first-year physical education students of the Santa Irene, Vigo high school for their aid in carrying out the study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Applsci 15 03269 g001
Figure 1. IVR screen display: (a) Beat Saber, (b) Litesport.
Figure 1. IVR screen display: (a) Beat Saber, (b) Litesport.
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Figure 2. Litesport, Beat Saber and Litesport’s Total Body and Boxing exercises used during coordination training.
Figure 2. Litesport, Beat Saber and Litesport’s Total Body and Boxing exercises used during coordination training.
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Figure 3. Correlation between accuracy (pts) and speed (s).
Figure 3. Correlation between accuracy (pts) and speed (s).
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Figure 4. Correlation between accuracy (pts) and upper body strength (m).
Figure 4. Correlation between accuracy (pts) and upper body strength (m).
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Table 1. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA).
Table 1. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA).
Initial MomentFinal MomentFp
Accuracy (goal points, pts)Control Group996.43 ± 936.69989.29 ± 737.036.9580.010
Experimental Group820.00 ± 794.121630.00 ± 854.66 **
Upper body strength (m)Control Group3.91 ± 1.073.71 ± 1.123.3870.041
Experimental Group3.86 ± 0.684.06 ± 0.67 *
Speed (s)Control Group2.26 ± 0.222.03 ± 0.1920.564<0.001
Experimental Group2.26 ± 0.282.44 ± 0.27 **
Obs: ** p > 0.005; * p > 0.01 (pre–post intergroup).
Table 2. Analysis of GEQ and SSQ test data.
Table 2. Analysis of GEQ and SSQ test data.
Experimental
MeanSDMinimumMaximum
GEQ: Positive_Experiences2.660.940.504.00
GEQ: Negative_Experiences0.050.100.000.33
GEQ: Fatigue1.270.770.002.50
GEQ: Return to reality0.370.540.002.00
SSQ_Nausea0.130.150.000.43
SSQ_Oculomotor0.110.100.000.29
SSQ_Disorientation0.000.000.000.00
SSQ_TOTAL0.080.070.000.24
GEQ: game experience questionnaire; SSQ: simulator sickness questionnaire.
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López Rodríguez, A.; Cancela-Carral, J.M. Influence of Immersive Virtual Coordination Training on Launch Accuracy: Randomized Controlled Trial. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 3269. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063269

AMA Style

López Rodríguez A, Cancela-Carral JM. Influence of Immersive Virtual Coordination Training on Launch Accuracy: Randomized Controlled Trial. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(6):3269. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063269

Chicago/Turabian Style

López Rodríguez, Adriana, and José María Cancela-Carral. 2025. "Influence of Immersive Virtual Coordination Training on Launch Accuracy: Randomized Controlled Trial" Applied Sciences 15, no. 6: 3269. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063269

APA Style

López Rodríguez, A., & Cancela-Carral, J. M. (2025). Influence of Immersive Virtual Coordination Training on Launch Accuracy: Randomized Controlled Trial. Applied Sciences, 15(6), 3269. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063269

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