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Applied Sciences
Volume 15
Issue 21
10.3390/app152111798
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

Impact of Three-Fluid Nozzle Emulsification on the Physicochemical and Thermodynamic Properties of Avocado Oil Microcapsules Obtained by Spray Drying

by
Anahí Hernández-Marañón
1,
Enrique Flores-Andrade
2,
Jorge Yáñez-Fernández
3,
M. Teresa Carvajal
4,
Luz Alicia Pascual-Pineda
5,
Liliana Alamilla-Beltrán
1,
Humberto Hernández-Sánchez
1 and
Gustavo F. Gutiérrez-López
1,*
1
Departamento de Ingeniería Bioquímica, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N, Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico
2
Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Veracruzana, Prolongación Oriente 6, Orizaba 94340, Veracruz, Mexico
3
Laboratorio de Biomateriales, Centro de Investigación en Ciencia Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada, Unidad Legaria, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Legaria 694, Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11500, Mexico
4
Department of Agricultural & Biological Engineering, Purdue University, 225 South University Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2093, USA
5
Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Alimentos (CIDEA), Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa 91000, Veracruz, Mexico
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(21), 11798; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152111798
Submission received: 25 September 2025 / Revised: 25 October 2025 / Accepted: 4 November 2025 / Published: 5 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Food Packaging and Preservation)
Versions Notes

Featured Application

The findings highlight the potential of spray drying with a three-fluid nozzle as a strategy for microencapsulating oils. Future research could focus on its incorporation into different food matrices and on optimizing storage conditions and controlled release.

Abstract

This study investigated the production and characterization of avocado oil emulsions generated with a three-fluid nozzle (3FN) and the physicochemical and thermodynamic properties of the resulting microcapsules obtained by spray drying. The emulsions showed a bimodal size distribution with a main peak at 0.893 µm and PDI values below 0.70 indicate a mid-range polydispersity. Despite their shear-thinning behavior, emulsions exhibited limited stability, as indicated by ζ-potential (–23.9 mV) and increasing TSI values. Spray drying with 3FN achieved a yield of 71.7% and an encapsulation efficiency of 57.8%, with moisture content below 4%, meeting commercial requirements. The microcapsules displayed unimodal particle distributions (D[3,2] = 8.38 µm; D[4,3] = 11.14 µm) and irregular spherical morphologies with surface folds and roughness. Adsorption isotherms followed a type II pattern, well described by the GAB model, with monolayer moisture content (0.043–0.060 g H2O/g solids) defining critical stability conditions. Thermodynamic analyses identified a “minimum entropy zone” corresponding to enhanced structural stability, while glass transition data confirmed that encapsulated oil did not act as a plasticizer. Overall, the use of a three-fluid nozzle enabled the development of avocado oil microcapsules with favorable physical and thermal attributes, supporting their potential for long-term stability in functional food applications.
Keywords: microencapsulation; spray drying; three-fluid nozzle microencapsulation; spray drying; three-fluid nozzle

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Hernández-Marañón, A.; Flores-Andrade, E.; Yáñez-Fernández, J.; Carvajal, M.T.; Pascual-Pineda, L.A.; Alamilla-Beltrán, L.; Hernández-Sánchez, H.; Gutiérrez-López, G.F. Impact of Three-Fluid Nozzle Emulsification on the Physicochemical and Thermodynamic Properties of Avocado Oil Microcapsules Obtained by Spray Drying. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 11798. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152111798

AMA Style

Hernández-Marañón A, Flores-Andrade E, Yáñez-Fernández J, Carvajal MT, Pascual-Pineda LA, Alamilla-Beltrán L, Hernández-Sánchez H, Gutiérrez-López GF. Impact of Three-Fluid Nozzle Emulsification on the Physicochemical and Thermodynamic Properties of Avocado Oil Microcapsules Obtained by Spray Drying. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(21):11798. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152111798

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hernández-Marañón, Anahí, Enrique Flores-Andrade, Jorge Yáñez-Fernández, M. Teresa Carvajal, Luz Alicia Pascual-Pineda, Liliana Alamilla-Beltrán, Humberto Hernández-Sánchez, and Gustavo F. Gutiérrez-López. 2025. "Impact of Three-Fluid Nozzle Emulsification on the Physicochemical and Thermodynamic Properties of Avocado Oil Microcapsules Obtained by Spray Drying" Applied Sciences 15, no. 21: 11798. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152111798

APA Style

Hernández-Marañón, A., Flores-Andrade, E., Yáñez-Fernández, J., Carvajal, M. T., Pascual-Pineda, L. A., Alamilla-Beltrán, L., Hernández-Sánchez, H., & Gutiérrez-López, G. F. (2025). Impact of Three-Fluid Nozzle Emulsification on the Physicochemical and Thermodynamic Properties of Avocado Oil Microcapsules Obtained by Spray Drying. Applied Sciences, 15(21), 11798. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152111798

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