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Applied Sciences
Volume 15
Issue 20
10.3390/app152010949
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Review

Rare Earth Elements: A Review of Primary Sources, Applications, Business Investment, and Characterization Techniques

by
Fabiano Ferreira de Medeiros
1,
Alexandre Pereira Wentz
1,
Beatriz Almeida Santos Castro
1,
Fabricio Dias Rodrigues
1,
Sara Silva Alves
1,
Maria das Graças Andrade Korn
2,3,
Jefferson Bettini
4,
Jeancarlo Pereira dos Anjos
1,3 and
Lílian Lefol Nani Guarieiro
1,3,*
1
Integrated Laboratory of Applied Research in Chemistry, SENAI CIMATEC University, 1845 Orlando Gomes Avenue, Piatã, Salvador 41650-010, BA, Brazil
2
Institute of Chemistry, Ondina Campus, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador 40170-115, BA, Brazil
3
National Institute of Science and Technology in Energy and Environment (INCT E&A), Ondina Campus, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador 40170-110, BA, Brazil
4
National Nanotechnology Laboratory (LNNano), Brazilian Center for Energy and Materials Research (CNPEM), 10000 Giuseppe Máximo Scolfaro Street, Bosque das Palmeiras, Campinas 13083-100, SP, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(20), 10949; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152010949 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 1 September 2025 / Revised: 7 October 2025 / Accepted: 9 October 2025 / Published: 12 October 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Prospecting Geology)
Versions Notes

Featured Application

Sustainable solutions for prospecting and exploration of rare earth elements (REEs). Technological applications of REEs: catalysts, ceramics, and metallurgy. Robust analytical techniques for analyzing REE in multi-element geological matrices.

Abstract

Minerals bearing rare earth elements (REEs) are formed through long geological processes, among which monazite, bastnasite, xenotime, and ionic adsorption clays are the most economically exploited. Although Brazil has one of the largest reserves of REEs on the planet, its production is still not significant on the world stage. China remains dominant, with the largest reserves of REEs and controlling more than half of world production. Due to their important application in advanced clean and low-carbon energy technologies, REEs have become fundamental to the energy transition process. Technological applications related to catalyst synthesis, ceramics production, and metallurgy have been explored. Furthermore, the use of REEs in devices of great demand today, such as computer memory, rechargeable batteries, and mobile phones, has been cited. With the growing demand for these critical minerals, large mining companies are seeking to implement cleaner production policies in their processes and save natural resources to minimize the environmental impacts of the exploration. Robust analytical techniques have made it possible to characterize these elements in multi-element geological matrices, with the increasing exploration and identification of new REE mineral reserves.
Keywords: critical minerals; ore deposits; mining; geochemistry; analytical techniques; technological applications critical minerals; ore deposits; mining; geochemistry; analytical techniques; technological applications

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MDPI and ACS Style

Medeiros, F.F.d.; Wentz, A.P.; Castro, B.A.S.; Rodrigues, F.D.; Alves, S.S.; Korn, M.d.G.A.; Bettini, J.; Anjos, J.P.d.; Guarieiro, L.L.N. Rare Earth Elements: A Review of Primary Sources, Applications, Business Investment, and Characterization Techniques. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10949. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152010949

AMA Style

Medeiros FFd, Wentz AP, Castro BAS, Rodrigues FD, Alves SS, Korn MdGA, Bettini J, Anjos JPd, Guarieiro LLN. Rare Earth Elements: A Review of Primary Sources, Applications, Business Investment, and Characterization Techniques. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(20):10949. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152010949

Chicago/Turabian Style

Medeiros, Fabiano Ferreira de, Alexandre Pereira Wentz, Beatriz Almeida Santos Castro, Fabricio Dias Rodrigues, Sara Silva Alves, Maria das Graças Andrade Korn, Jefferson Bettini, Jeancarlo Pereira dos Anjos, and Lílian Lefol Nani Guarieiro. 2025. "Rare Earth Elements: A Review of Primary Sources, Applications, Business Investment, and Characterization Techniques" Applied Sciences 15, no. 20: 10949. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152010949

APA Style

Medeiros, F. F. d., Wentz, A. P., Castro, B. A. S., Rodrigues, F. D., Alves, S. S., Korn, M. d. G. A., Bettini, J., Anjos, J. P. d., & Guarieiro, L. L. N. (2025). Rare Earth Elements: A Review of Primary Sources, Applications, Business Investment, and Characterization Techniques. Applied Sciences, 15(20), 10949. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152010949

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