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Article

A Complete Control-Oriented Model for Hydrogen Hybrid Renewable Microgrids with High-Voltage DC Bus Stabilized by Batteries and Supercapacitors

by
José Manuel Andújar Márquez
*,
Francisco José Vivas Fernández
and
Francisca Segura Manzano
Research Centre on Technology, Energy and Sustainability (CITES), University of Huelva, 21007 Huelva, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(19), 10810; https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910810
Submission received: 21 August 2025 / Revised: 28 September 2025 / Accepted: 7 October 2025 / Published: 8 October 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges and Opportunities of Microgrids)

Abstract

The growing penetration of renewable energy sources requires resilient microgrids capable of providing stable and continuous operation. Hybrid energy storage systems (HESS), which integrate hydrogen-based storage systems (HBSS), battery storage systems (BSS), and supercapacitor banks (SCB), are essential to ensuring the flexibility and robustness of these microgrids. Accurate modelling of these microgrids is crucial for analysis, controller design, and performance optimization, but the complexity of HESS poses a significant challenge: simplified linear models fail to capture the inherent nonlinear dynamics, while nonlinear approaches often require excessive computational effort for real-time control applications. To address this challenge, this study presents a novel state space model with linear variable parameters (LPV), which effectively balances accuracy in capturing the nonlinear dynamics of the microgrid and computational efficiency. The research focuses on a high-voltage DC bus microgrid architecture, in which the BSS and SCB are connected directly in parallel to provide passive DC bus stabilization, a configuration that improves system resilience but has received limited attention in the existing literature. The proposed LPV framework employs recursive linearisation around variable operating points, generating a time-varying linear representation that accurately captures the nonlinear behaviour of the system. By relying exclusively on directly measurable state variables, the model eliminates the need for observers, facilitating its practical implementation. The developed model has been compared with a reference model validated in the literature, and the results have been excellent, with average errors, MAE, RAE and RMSE values remaining below 1.2% for all critical variables, including state-of-charge, DC bus voltage, and hydrogen level. At the same time, the model maintains remarkable computational efficiency, completing a 24-h simulation in just 1.49 s, more than twice as fast as its benchmark counterpart. This optimal combination of precision and efficiency makes the developed LPV model particularly suitable for advanced model-based control strategies, including real-time energy management systems (EMS) that use model predictive control (MPC). The developed model represents a significant advance in microgrid modelling, as it provides a general control-oriented approach that enables the design and operation of more resilient, efficient, and scalable renewable energy microgrids.
Keywords: state-space model; energy management system; renewable microgrids; hydrogen backup systems; supercapacitors; lead-acid battery; lithium-ion battery state-space model; energy management system; renewable microgrids; hydrogen backup systems; supercapacitors; lead-acid battery; lithium-ion battery

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MDPI and ACS Style

Andújar Márquez, J.M.; Vivas Fernández, F.J.; Segura Manzano, F. A Complete Control-Oriented Model for Hydrogen Hybrid Renewable Microgrids with High-Voltage DC Bus Stabilized by Batteries and Supercapacitors. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10810. https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910810

AMA Style

Andújar Márquez JM, Vivas Fernández FJ, Segura Manzano F. A Complete Control-Oriented Model for Hydrogen Hybrid Renewable Microgrids with High-Voltage DC Bus Stabilized by Batteries and Supercapacitors. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(19):10810. https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910810

Chicago/Turabian Style

Andújar Márquez, José Manuel, Francisco José Vivas Fernández, and Francisca Segura Manzano. 2025. "A Complete Control-Oriented Model for Hydrogen Hybrid Renewable Microgrids with High-Voltage DC Bus Stabilized by Batteries and Supercapacitors" Applied Sciences 15, no. 19: 10810. https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910810

APA Style

Andújar Márquez, J. M., Vivas Fernández, F. J., & Segura Manzano, F. (2025). A Complete Control-Oriented Model for Hydrogen Hybrid Renewable Microgrids with High-Voltage DC Bus Stabilized by Batteries and Supercapacitors. Applied Sciences, 15(19), 10810. https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910810

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