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Article

Application of Salicornia perennans Powder in Sausage Production: Effects on Fatty Acid Profile, Oxidative Stability, Color, and Antioxidant Properties and Sensory Profile

by
Gulzhan Tokysheva
1,
Damilya Konysbayeva
2,
Malika Myrzabayeva
2,
Gulnazym Ospankulova
1,
Kalamkas Dairova
1,
Nuray Battalova
1 and
Kadyrzhan Makangali
1,*
1
Department of Technology of Food and Processing Industries, Kazakh Agrotechnical Research University named After S.Seifullin, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
2
Department of Plant Protection and Quarantine, Kazakh Agrotechnical Research University named After S.Seifullin, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(19), 10556; https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910556
Submission received: 14 September 2025 / Revised: 25 September 2025 / Accepted: 26 September 2025 / Published: 30 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Production Strategies for Meat and Meat Products: Technological Innovation, Animal Welfare, and Environmental Impact Reduction)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

This study investigated the incorporation of Salicornia perennans powder as a natural antioxidant and functional ingredient in cooked sausages, with the aim of improving product quality and promoting sustainable production strategies. The inclusion of 3% Salicornia perennans resulted in a nutritionally favorable shift in the fatty acid profile, with a 1.5-fold increase in α-linolenic acid ALA and the presence of long-chain ω-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA, along with improved PUFA/SFA and ω-6/ω-3 ratios. Lipid and protein oxidation were significantly suppressed during refrigerated storage, as evidenced by the reduced peroxide value of 10.6 vs. 12.8 meq/kg, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance value of 0.158 vs. 0.210 mg MDA/kg, acid value of 4.6 vs. 5.5 mg KOH/g, and carbonyl compound value of 101.9 vs. 112.3 nmol/mg protein compared to the control. Color stability was enhanced, with ΔE* values remaining below perceptible thresholds in Salicornia perennans-supplemented sausages, highlighting its role in preserving visual quality. Antioxidant capacity was markedly higher, with FRAP values of 14.5 mg GAE/g undetected in the control and improved DPPH radical-scavenging activity of 22.6% vs. 12.5%. These findings demonstrate that Salicornia perennans not only enriches meat products with bioactive compounds and health-promoting lipids but also reduces oxidative spoilage, thereby extending shelf life. The results emphasize the potential of halophyte-based ingredients to support technological innovation, environmental impact reduction, and the development of clean-label functional meat products aligned with sustainable production strategies.

1. Introduction

Global demand for meat products continues to rise, but shelf-life and quality remain constrained by lipid and protein oxidation, which cause rancidity, discoloration, and nutritional losses during storage and distribution [1]. Lipid peroxidation proceeds via radical chain reactions, forming hydroperoxides and aldehydes, while protein oxidation yields carbonyls; both processes drive quality deterioration and consumer rejection [2,3]. Mitigating oxidation is therefore critical for sustainable meat production, as shelf-life extension reduces waste and improves resource efficiency.
The clean-label trend has intensified interest in plant-derived antioxidants as alternatives to synthetic additives. Polyphenol-rich extracts can reduce TBARS and peroxide values, improve color stability, and sometimes modulate flavor and texture [4,5], aligning with sustainability goals while adding nutritional value [6,7]. In this context, Salicornia spp. Is a promising halophyte. It contains minerals, fibers, chlorophylls/carotenoids, tocopherols, and phenolics with antioxidant capacity, and grows on saline lands—supporting saline agriculture and circular bioeconomy approaches [8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16]. Studies show that adding Salicornia to sausages can modify color and reduce oxidation, especially under reduced-salt conditions [8]. Recent characterizations of S. perennans and S. ramosissima confirm abundant bioactives and feasible green extraction routes [9,10,11,16,17], while saline-land agronomy reviews emphasize the broader sustainability benefits of halophytes [12,13,14,15,18].
Antioxidant capacity in foods is commonly measured by FRAP and DPPH assays, which provide complementary assessments of redox and radical-scavenging activity [19,20]. In meat systems, these assays are paired with oxidation endpoints (PV, TBARS, carbonyls) to link mechanism with performance [3,14]. Color is equally critical to consumer acceptance: CIE Lab* and ΔE* quantify visual changes, while myoglobin oxidation underpins discoloration [21,22,23]. Because Salicornia pigments impart green hues, formulations often show lower a* (redness) and higher b* (yellow-green), yet paradoxically maintain greater overall color stability due to antioxidant protection [24,25,26,27]. These dynamics are consistent with reports on chlorophyll-containing seaweeds and stabilized chlorophyll colorants in meat systems [25,26,27].
From a nutritional standpoint, indices such as the Atherogenic Index (AI) and Thrombogenic Index (TI) contextualize fatty acid data in relation to cardiometabolic risk [28,29,30]. Improvements in PUFA/SFA and ω-6/ω-3 ratios, along with favorable AI and TI shifts, highlight the nutritional relevance of reformulation. The inclusion level of 3% Salicornia perennans powder was chosen based on preliminary sensory and stability trials, where higher concentrations (>3%) impaired flavor and texture, while lower levels (<2%) showed limited antioxidant efficacy.
Therefore, this study evaluates sausages enriched with 3% Salicornia perennans powder, assessing (i) fatty acid profiles and lipid health indices (PUFA/SFA, ω-6/ω-3, AI, TI), (ii) oxidative stability during storage (PV, TBARS, carbonyls, acid value), (iii) color behavior (Lab*, ΔE*, stability under light), and (iv) antioxidant capacity (FRAP, DPPH).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

The sausages were produced using standard technology, including meat grinding, mixing with functional additives and spices, stuffing into natural casings, and subsequent heat treatment. Two formulations were prepared: (i) control sausages and (ii) sausages supplemented with 3% Salicornia perennans powder (relative to the total meat batter mass).
The control formulation consisted of 35 kg of premium-grade beef, 60 kg of poultry meat, 3 kg of egg melange, and 2 kg of dried milk powder per 100 kg of unsalted raw material. The experimental formulation (3% Salicornia perennans) contained 47.5 kg of beef, 47.5 kg of poultry meat, 3 kg of egg melange, and 2 kg of dried milk powder, totaling 100 kg. Seasonings and functional ingredients (per 100 kg of finished product) were 1.4 kg salt (control) vs. 0.95 kg salt (Salicornia perennans variant), 0.42 kg Salicornia perennans powder, 0.001 kg sodium nitrite, 0.2 kg sugar, 0.05 kg calcium citrate, 0.05 kg ascorbic acid, and 0.05 kg black pepper. The Salicornia perennans powder was prepared by drying aerial parts of Salicornia perennans to constant weight, followed by fine milling to achieve a particle size of 100–150 µm, enabling uniform dispersion in the meat matrix. Thermal processing was carried out until the internal temperature of the sausages reached 72 °C (Figure 1). The experiments were performed at the experimental meat-processing facility of Saken Seifullin Kazakh Agro Technical Research University.

2.2. Sensory Profile

Sensory evaluation was conducted in accordance with the guidelines of ISO 13299:2016 [31] “Sensory analysis—Methodology—General guidance for establishing a sensory profile,” with panelist training and selection procedures following ISO 8586:2012 [32]. A panel of 15 trained assessors from the Department of Food Technology, each with prior experience in evaluating meat products, participated in the study. The evaluation was based on 20 sensory descriptors covering appearance, odor, flavor, and texture attributes. Assessors used a 10-point structured line scale (1 = very weak, 10 = very intense) to rate each attribute.

2.3. Lipid Analysis

2.3.1. Determination of Fatty Acid Composition

The fatty acid composition was determined by gas chromatography (GC) following the guidelines of ISO 5508:1990 [33] “Animal and vegetable fats and oils—Analysis by gas chromatography of methyl esters of fatty acids.” Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) were prepared via base-catalyzed transesterification and analyzed using an Agilent 7890 gas chromatograph (Agilent Technologies, Andover, MA, USA) equipped with a flame ionization detector (FID) and an HP-Innowax capillary column (60 m × 0.32 mm × 0.5 µm). The carrier gas was nitrogen. The oven temperature was programmed from 100 to 260 °C at 10 °C/min. Injections of 1 µL were made with a split ratio of 1:100. Detector temperature was set at 280 °C. Identification of FAMEs was based on comparison with a Supelco 37 FAME Mix (No. 47885-U). Quantification was carried out by the internal standard method using nonadecanoic acid methyl ester (C19:0, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) added prior to transesterification. The results were expressed as the percentage of each fatty acid relative to the total amount of all identified FAMEs (% of total FAMEs). All analyses were performed in triplicate (n = 3) to ensure reproducibility.

2.3.2. Peroxide Value (PV)

The primary products of lipid oxidation were quantified using the standard iodometric titration method [3]. Briefly, 5 g of homogenized sausage sample was mixed with 30 mL of acetic acid–chloroform solution (3:2, v/v) and filtered. To the filtrate, 0.5 mL of saturated potassium iodide (KI) solution was added and allowed to react in the dark for 1 min. Distilled water (30 mL) was added, and the liberated iodine was titrated with standardized 0.01 N sodium thiosulfate solution using starch as an indicator. The peroxide value was expressed as milliequivalents of active oxygen per kilogram of sample (meq O2/kg).

2.3.3. Thiobarbituric Acid-Reactive Substances (TBARSs)

Secondary lipid oxidation products were evaluated by the TBARS assay. Sausage samples (5 g) were homogenized with 15 mL of 7.5% trichloroacetic acid solution containing 0.1% EDTA and 0.1% propyl gallate as stabilizers. The homogenate was filtered, and 5 mL of the filtrate was mixed with 5 mL of 0.02 M thiobarbituric acid (TBA) solution. The mixture was heated in a boiling water bath for 30 min, then cooled, and the absorbance was recorded at 532 nm. TBARS values were expressed as mg of malondialdehyde (MDA) per kilogram of sample, using a standard curve prepared with 1,1,3,3-tetraethoxypropane.

2.3.4. Acid Value (AV)

The hydrolytic rancidity of the lipids was determined by titration, according to AOAC methods. A 5 g sample was homogenized with 50 mL of ethanol–ether mixture (1:1, v/v) and titrated with 0.1 N potassium hydroxide (KOH) using phenolphthalein as an indicator. Acid values were calculated as mg KOH required to neutralize free fatty acids in 1 g of fat.

2.4. Protein Oxidation (Carbonyl Compounds)

Protein oxidation was determined by measuring carbonyl groups according to the 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH) method. A 1 g portion of sausage sample was homogenized in 10 mL of phosphate buffer (pH 7.4). An aliquot of 1 mL was reacted with 1 mL of 10 mM DNPH solution in 2 M HCl and incubated in the dark for 1 h with intermittent shaking. Proteins were then precipitated with 20% trichloroacetic acid (TCA), washed with ethanol–ethyl acetate solution (1:1, v/v), and dissolved in 6 M guanidine hydrochloride. The absorbance of the solution was measured at 370 nm, and carbonyl content was expressed as nmol/mg protein using ε = 22,000 M−1·cm−1. Protein concentration was determined in parallel using the Bradford assay (Bio-Rad protein assay kit), with bovine serum albumin as the standard.

2.5. Determination of Color Characteristics

Color properties (L*, a*, b*) were measured using a Konica Minolta CR 400 spectrophotometer. Calibration was performed against white and black standards before measurement. Each sausage sample was analyzed in five replicates, and results were expressed as arithmetic means. Color stability was evaluated by monitoring ΔE* values during 10 days of refrigerated storage under light exposure.

2.6. Determination of Antioxidant Capacity (FRAP and DPPH)

The ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of the samples was determined following the method of Benzie and Strain [19], with butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and α-tocopherol serving as reference antioxidants. Briefly, extracts were obtained by macerating dried sausage samples in 80% ethanol, followed by centrifugation and filtration. Then, 1 mL of extract at different dilutions was mixed with 2.5 mL of phosphate buffer 0.1 M, pH 6.6, and 2.5 mL of potassium ferricyanide solution 1%, w/v, followed by incubation at 50 °C for 20 min. After incubation, 2.5 mL of trichloroacetic acid solution 10%, w/v was added. An aliquot of 2.5 mL from the reaction mixture was combined with 2.5 mL of deionized water and 0.5 mL of ferric chloride solution 0.1%, w/v. The mixture was allowed to stand for 30 min at room temperature, and the absorbance was recorded at 700 nm. The antioxidant capacity was expressed as milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per gram of dry extract mg GAE/g.
The radical-scavenging activity of the extracts was evaluated using the DPPH assay. A 2 mL aliquot of 0.1 mg/mL DPPH solution in methanol was mixed with 2 mL of 200 μg/mL sample solution. The mixture was vortexed and left to react in the dark at room temperature for 30 min. Absorbance was measured at 517 nm against a methanol blank. Ascorbic acid was used as a positive control. All determinations were carried out in triplicate.

2.7. Statistical Analysis

Data were analyzed using a general linear model (GLM) in SAS software (version 9.4; SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Mean comparisons were performed with Tukey’s post hoc test. All results are presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD), and statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. For storage experiments, data were analyzed using a two-way ANOVA (GLM) with treatment (control vs. 3% Salicornia) and storage time (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 days) as fixed factors, including their interaction. When interaction effects were significant, pairwise comparisons were performed using Tukey’s test (α = 0.05).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Analysis of Fatty Acid Composition

The incorporation of Salicornia perennans powder led to modest but measurable changes in the fatty acid profile of the sausages (Table 1).
Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) such as palmitic acid C16:0 showed a slight reduction from 19.7% to 18.5%, while stearic acid C18:0 increased from 7.6% to 8.8%. Long-chain SFAs, including behenic C22:0 and tricosanoic C23:0, were detected in trace amounts in both groups, indicating that Salicornia perennans addition did not substantially alter the minor saturated lipid fraction. Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) displayed slight modifications: Oleic acid C18:1 decreased 33.9% vs. 32.5%, whereas gondoic acid C20:1 approximately doubled 0.5% vs. 1.2%. This shift suggests a partial redistribution of MUFAs, potentially attributable to the lipid fraction of Salicornia perennans, which has been reported to contain appreciable amounts of C20:1 and nervonic acid [9,10]. The most significant differences were observed among polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Sausages enriched with Salicornia perennans contained higher levels of α-linolenic acid C18:3 ω-3, at 2.1% vs. 1.4%, and detectable amounts of eicosapentaenoic acid EPA C20:5 ω-3, at 0.2%, and docosahexaenoic acid DHA C22:6 ω-3, at 0.1%, which were absent in the control samples. Concurrently, ω-6 fatty acids such as linoleic acid C18:2 ω-6 increased slightly 30.5% vs. 29.7%, and arachidonic acid C20:4 ω-6 rose from 0.9% to 1.1%. The enrichment of sausages with ω-3 fatty acids is nutritionally relevant, as these compounds are associated with anti-inflammatory effects and cardiovascular protection [34,35,36]. Even small increases in EPA and DHA are valuable, since typical meat products are poor sources of these long-chain ω-3 PUFAs [37]. Previous studies with halophytes, including Salicornia perennans, also reported significant contributions to ω-3 enrichment when incorporated into food matrices [12,38].
Diets with lower ω-6/ω-3 ratios are linked to reduced risk of metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and chronic inflammation [39,40,41]. Our findings align with earlier reports demonstrating that plant-based additives rich in PUFAs can correct imbalanced fatty acid ratios in meat products [42,43]. Several authors have highlighted the potential of sea vegetables and halophytes to improve the lipid profile of meat products. Kim et al. [8] showed that adding Salicornia herbacea to reduced-salt sausages decreased lipid oxidation and enhanced the nutritional profile. Similarly, Hasnain et al. [44] demonstrated that Sarcocornia perennans biomass is rich in UFAs, particularly linoleic and linolenic acids. Our results are consistent with these observations, confirming that Salicornia perennans serves as a bioactive ingredient capable of modulating fatty acid distribution. Formulation note: The control and experimental sausages differed in beef/poultry ratios as part of the technological adjustments accompanying salt reduction and the inclusion of Salicornia perennans powder. While such differences may contribute to minor variations in fatty acid distribution, the observed improvements in oxidative stability, antioxidant activity, and color behavior are consistent with the antioxidant mechanisms of Salicornia bioactives, as supported by previous literature. This factor is therefore acknowledged as a limitation of the study.
The addition of 3% Salicornia perennans powder to sausage formulations resulted in favorable modifications of lipid health indices (Table 2).
The proportion of saturated fatty acids (ΣSFAs) slightly decreased from 28.60% in control sausages to 28.10% in the experimental group, while monounsaturated fatty acids (ΣMUFAs) decreased marginally (38.30% vs. 37.40%). In contrast, polyunsaturated fatty acids (ΣPUFAs) increased, with ω-6 PUFAs rising from 31.50% to 32.70% and ω-3 PUFAs markedly increasing from 1.40% to 2.40%. The improvement in the PUFA/ΣSFA ratio from 1.150 to 1.249 is nutritionally significant, as higher PUFA/ΣSFA ratios are associated with reduced cardiovascular risk and improved lipid metabolism [28,29,45]. More importantly, the ω-6/ω-3 ratio decreased substantially from 22.50 in control sausages to 13.63 in the Salicornia perennans variant. This shift is consistent with dietary recommendations advocating for a reduced ω-6/ω-3 ratio to mitigate pro-inflammatory effects and to prevent metabolic syndrome, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases [34,36,39,46]. Indices related to cardiovascular health also improved. The Atherogenic Index (AI) decreased from 0.277 to 0.256, while the Thrombogenic Index (TI) decreased from 0.698 to 0.645. Both indices are widely used predictors of the potential risk associated with the development of atherosclerosis and thrombosis [30,41,42]. Similar beneficial effects on AI and TI were observed in studies incorporating seaweeds, halophytes, or plant-based antioxidants into meat systems [8,16,47]. Overall, these changes demonstrate that Salicornia perennans supplementation contributes not only to oxidative stability but also to the nutritional improvement of the lipid fraction in meat products. This dual effect—technological and health-related—aligns with current consumer demands for functional meat products and sustainable innovation in animal-origin foods [35,43].

3.2. Lipid and Protein Oxidation in Sausages During Storage

The progression of lipid peroxidation, assessed through peroxide value (PV), showed significant differences between treatments after day 6 of storage (Table 3).
Control sausages exhibited a steady increase, reaching 12.8 meq/kg by day 10, while Salicornia perennans-enriched sausages accumulated significantly fewer hydroperoxides (10.6 meq/kg; p = 0.001). The reduction of nearly 17% at the final storage point highlights the protective role of Salicornia perennans against primary lipid oxidation. Protein oxidation followed a similar pattern, with lower carbonyl content observed in Salicornia perennans sausages (101.9 vs. 112.3 nmol/mg protein; p = 0.012). Previous studies confirm that natural antioxidants from halophytes and seaweeds, rich in phenolic compounds and chlorophyll derivatives, can reduce protein carbonylation in meat matrices [48,49,50]. This indicates that Salicornia perennans provides dual protection of both lipids and proteins, likely due to radical scavenging and metal-chelating activity.
Thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance (TBARS) values, which reflect malondialdehyde (MDA) accumulation, increased progressively in both groups during storage (Table 4).
However, Salicornia perennans sausages consistently exhibited lower values. At day 10, the TBARS level in the control group was 0.210 mg MDA/kg, compared to 0.158 mg MDA/kg in the treated group (p < 0.001). This represents a reduction of ~25%. Similar TBARS-lowering effects were previously reported for rosemary, green tea, and grape seed extracts in sausages [51,52,53], supporting the role of Salicornia perennans as an effective natural antioxidant. The mechanism may involve chlorophyll-derived compounds and polyphenols acting as free radical quenchers, thereby interrupting lipid peroxidation chains [25,26]. Additionally, the presence of minerals such as magnesium and calcium in Salicornia perennans may contribute indirectly to stabilizing muscle proteins and lipids during refrigerated storage [9].
Free fatty acid (FFA) accumulation, expressed as acid value (AV), also differed between groups (Table 5).
While both treatments showed gradual increases during storage, the Salicornia perennans sausages exhibited significantly lower AV after day 6 (p < 0.05). By day 10, the AV reached 5.5 mg KOH/g in the control samples compared to 4.6 mg KOH/g in the experimental samples (p < 0.001). This ~16% reduction indicates that Salicornia perennans delayed hydrolytic rancidity, in agreement with earlier findings on the stabilizing effects of plant-derived antioxidants in lipid systems [52,54,55].
Collectively, the results confirm that Salicornia perennans acts as a multifunctional stabilizer in meat systems, reducing primary (peroxides), secondary (MDA), and tertiary (FFA) markers of lipid degradation, while also limiting protein oxidation. These effects are consistent with reports on other halophytes and seaweed extracts, which contain bioactive molecules such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, tocopherols, and chlorophylls [12,16,56].
From a sustainability perspective, incorporating Salicornia perennans into sausages not only enhances oxidative stability and nutritional indices but also valorizes underutilized halophytes adapted to saline soils. This supports broader strategies for developing functional, clean-label meat products with extended shelf life and improved health attributes.

3.3. Analysis of Color Characteristic

Color is a critical quality attribute in meat products, as it strongly influences consumer perception and purchasing decisions. In this study, the incorporation of Salicornia perennans powder markedly affected the color dynamics of sausages during storage (Table 6).
At day 0, sausages containing Salicornia perennans exhibited a lower lightness L* = 57.9 compared to the control L* = 59.8, consistent with the greenish hue imparted by Salicornia perennans pigments. During storage, both groups showed a gradual decline in L*, reflecting the natural darkening of cooked meat products due to oxidative and structural changes [57,58]. Redness (a*) decreased progressively during storage, with sharper reductions in control sausages, from 14.6 to 12.0, than in Salicornia perennans-supplemented samples, from 10.3 to 9.8. Although the addition of Salicornia perennans initially lowered redness, it improved the stability of a*, as indicated by higher color stability percentages on days 6–10: 94.2–95.1% compared to 82.2–89.0% for control sausages. This suggests that Salicornia perennans contributed antioxidant compounds that slowed myoglobin oxidation, thereby preserving chromatic stability [55,59,60]. This protective effect is likely due to the presence of phenolic acids and flavonoids in Salicornia, which can donate hydrogen atoms to neutralize free radicals, thereby preventing the oxidation of oxymyoglobin to metmyoglobin. In addition, chlorophyll-derived pigments and essential minerals (e.g., Mg, Zn) may contribute through redox and metal-chelating mechanisms, further stabilizing the heme iron of myoglobin and preserving redness (a) during storage. The yellowness (b*) values increased during storage in both treatments. However, sausages with Salicornia perennans consistently exhibited higher b* values, of 20.3–21.4, compared to the control values of 16.2–18.5. This shift can be attributed to the intrinsic green-yellow pigments of Salicornia perennans and their interaction with meat proteins and lipids, producing a more stable chromatic profile [5]. The ΔE* values further confirmed that color changes were less pronounced in Salicornia perennans sausages, with ΔE* = 1.85 at day 10, compared to the control, with ΔE* = 4.59. Since ΔE* values above 2.0 are considered perceptible to the human eye [61], the color alterations in Salicornia perennans sausages remained below the sensory detection threshold for most of the storage period, indicating superior color stability. These findings align with previous studies reporting that plant-based antioxidants, such as polyphenols and flavonoids, can retard oxidative discoloration in meat products [48,62,63]. The protective effect of Salicornia perennans could be attributed to its high content of phenolic acids, flavonoids, and minerals, which enhance redox stability and reduce pro-oxidant activity. In a broader context, the use of natural ingredients like Salicornia perennans in meat systems represents an opportunity to improve both visual quality and functional value, while reducing reliance on synthetic additives.

3.4. Antioxidant Activity (FRAP and DPPH Assays)

The antioxidant activity of the sausage samples was evaluated using FRAP and DPPH assays, and the results are summarized in Table 7.
Sausages enriched with Salicornia perennans powder demonstrated a significantly higher ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP: 14.5 ± 0.05 mg GAE/g) compared to control samples, where activity was not detected (p < 0.0001). This increase can be attributed to the rich content of bioactive compounds in Salicornia perennans, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, and minerals that contribute to redox potential and enhance reducing capacity [64,65,66]. Similarly, the DPPH radical-scavenging activity showed a notable improvement in sausages with Salicornia perennans (22.60 ± 0.02%) compared to controls (12.46 ± 0.01%, p < 0.0001). The IC50 values also reflected this effect, with a lower concentration (73.2 µg/mL) required to neutralize 50% of radicals in the supplemented samples compared to controls (116.6 µg/mL, p = 0.002), confirming the stronger radical-scavenging efficiency of Salicornia perennans bioactives [20,67]. These results are consistent with previous reports that halophyte plants, including Salicornia perennans, exhibit strong antioxidant activity due to their adaptation to saline environments, leading to the accumulation of osmoprotectants, carotenoids, and polyphenols [68,69]. The findings align with studies where Salicornia perennans extracts improved oxidative stability and radical-scavenging activity in meat systems [70], as well as with data on other plant-derived additives, such as rosemary, purslane, and grape seed extracts [52,71].
From a technological perspective, the incorporation of Salicornia perennans contributes not only to improved oxidative stability but also to the potential reduction in synthetic additives, supporting cleaner label formulations. Future research should focus on isolating specific bioactive compounds from Salicornia perennans responsible for the observed effects and exploring their interactions with proteins and lipids in complex meat matrices. This would expand the understanding of functional halophyte applications in sustainable meat production.

3.5. Sensory Evaluation Results

To complement the instrumental analyses of lipid oxidation, color, and antioxidant activity, a sensory evaluation was performed to assess whether the addition of 3% Salicornia perennans powder influenced consumer-relevant quality attributes. Table 8 summarizes the mean intensity scores (10-point scale, n = 15) for appearance, odor, flavor, texture, and aftertaste descriptors, as well as overall acceptability (9-point scale).
The sensory findings were consistent with the instrumental measurements. The reduction of rancid and warmed-over notes, together with lower off-flavor intensity in Salicornia perennans sausages, reflected the lower PV, TBARS, and carbonyl values observed during storage. Similarly, the decreased redness perception but enhanced color stability matched the objective colorimetry results (higher a* retention and lower ΔE*). The slight increase in juiciness paralleled the delayed lipid and protein oxidation, which can contribute to improved water-holding capacity. Overall, the sensory data confirm that Salicornia perennans supplementation maintained product acceptability while providing technological and antioxidant benefits.

4. Conclusions

The incorporation of 3% Salicornia perennans powder enhanced the nutritional profile, oxidative stability, and color preservation of cooked sausages under reduced-salt conditions. The plant-derived bioactives effectively suppressed lipid and protein oxidation, strengthened antioxidant capacity, and maintained visual quality despite imparting a greenish hue. These findings demonstrate the potential of Salicornia perennans as a sustainable, clean-label additive that supports shelf-life extension and product safety while reducing reliance on synthetic nitrites. The study highlights a novel application of halophyte biomass in meat systems, contributing to the development of functional and eco-friendly meat products aligned with consumer and sustainability demands.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, G.T. and K.M.; methodology, D.K.; validation, M.M. and K.D.; formal analysis, N.B.; investigation, G.T.; resources, G.O.; data curation, K.M.; writing—original draft preparation, K.M.; writing—review and editing, G.T.; visualization, K.D.; supervision, K.M.; project administration, G.O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan, grant number BR22883587.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Applsci 15 10556 g001
Figure 1. Technological stages of sausage production with and without Salicornia perennans powder: (a) sausages during thermal processing; (b) experimental sausage batters prepared for analysis; (c) sausages after stuffing in casings prior to storage tests.
Figure 1. Technological stages of sausage production with and without Salicornia perennans powder: (a) sausages during thermal processing; (b) experimental sausage batters prepared for analysis; (c) sausages after stuffing in casings prior to storage tests.
Applsci 15 10556 g001
Table 1. Fatty acid compositions of sausage samples with the addition of Salicornia perennans.
Table 1. Fatty acid compositions of sausage samples with the addition of Salicornia perennans.
Fatty AcidFatty Acid Composition
(% of Total FAMEs)
Control SausagesSausages with Salicornia perennansp-Value
Trace fatty acids *<0.1<0.1–
Palmitic C16:019.7 ± 2.118.5 ± 2.00.042
Margaric C17:00.4 ± 0.40.3 ± 0.40.611
Stearic C18:07.6 ± 2.18.8 ± 2.10.038
Behenic C22:00.6 ± 0.40.5 ± 0.40.553
Tricosanoic C23:00.3 ± 0.4<0.10.307
Palmitoleic C16:12.8 ± 0.42.6 ± 0.40.144
Heptadecenoic C17:10.5 ± 0.40.5 ± 0.40.937
Oleic C18:133.9 ± 2.132.5 ± 2.00.049
Gondoic C20:10.5 ± 0.41.2 ± 0.40.021
Erucic C22:10.3 ± 0.40.2 ± 0.40.287
Nervonic C24:10.3 ± 0.40.4 ± 0.40.411
α-Linolenic C18:3 ω31.4 ± 0.42.1 ± 0.40.008
Timnodonic acid C20:5 ω3<0.10.2 ± 0.10.030
Docosahexaenoic C22:6 ω3<0.10.1 ± 0.10.085
Linoleic C18:2 ω629.7 ± 2.130.5 ± 2.10.062
Dihomo-γ-linolenic acid C20:3 ω60.3 ± 0.40.2 ± 0.40.275
Arachidonic acid C20:4 ω60.9 ± 0.41.1 ± 0.40.201
Eicosadienoic acid C20:2 ω60.6 ± 0.40.9 ± 0.40.048
* Trace fatty acids are those detected at levels < 0.1% of total FAMEs.
Table 2. Lipid health indices of control sausages and sausages with 3% Salicornia perennans powder.
Table 2. Lipid health indices of control sausages and sausages with 3% Salicornia perennans powder.
IndicatorsControl SausagesSausages with
Salicornia perennans		p-Value
ΣSFA28.60 ± 0.4528.10 ± 0.380.218
ΣMUFA38.30 ± 0.5237.40 ± 0.410.094
ΣPUFA (ω-6)31.50 ± 0.3632.70 ± 0.400.027
ΣPUFA (ω-3)1.40 ± 0.082.40 ± 0.110.003
PUFA/SFA1.150 ± 0.0201.249 ± 0.0180.011
ω-6/ω-322.50 ± 1.2013.63 ± 0.850.001
AI (Atherogenic Index)0.277 ± 0.0120.256 ± 0.0100.039
TI (Thrombogenic Index)0.698 ± 0.0210.645 ± 0.0180.022
Table 3. Fat and protein oxidation dynamics (baseline) in products during storage, with accumulation of peroxide value.
Table 3. Fat and protein oxidation dynamics (baseline) in products during storage, with accumulation of peroxide value.
Indicator Concentrationp-Value, Treatment Within Storage Time
Storage Time, DaysControl
Sausages		Sausages with Salicornia perennans
Peroxide number, meq/kg03.1 ± 0.33.2 ± 0.30.981
24.4 ± 0.44.2 ± 0.40.762
45.4 ± 0.54.9 ± 0.50.183
67.2 ± 0.46.3 ± 0.30.041
89.6 ± 0.58.1 ± 0.40.004
1012.8 ± 0.610.6 ± 0.50.001
Carbonyl compounds, nmol/mg of protein072.5 ± 3.670.1 ± 3.20.462
281.4 ± 3.977.6 ± 3.50.218
489.8 ± 4.284.2 ± 3.80.097
697.6 ± 4.190.5 ± 3.90.048
8106.2 ± 4.596.8 ± 4.00.015
10112.3 ± 4.7101.9 ± 4.10.012
Table 4. Fat oxidation dynamics, with accumulation of thiobarbituric number in sausages during storage.
Table 4. Fat oxidation dynamics, with accumulation of thiobarbituric number in sausages during storage.
Thiobarbituric Number, Storage Time, DaysConcentration, mgMA/kgp-Value, Treatment Within Storage Time
Control SausagesSausages with Salicornia perennans
0Below 0.039Below 0.039
20.050 ± 0.0050.043 ± 0.0040.182
40.105 ± 0.0100.087 ± 0.0090.031
60.122 ± 0.0120.101 ± 0.0100.010
80.160 ± 0.0140.122 ± 0.0120.002
100.210 ± 0.0190.158 ± 0.015<0.001
Table 5. Fat oxidation dynamics, with accumulation of acid number in sausages during storage.
Table 5. Fat oxidation dynamics, with accumulation of acid number in sausages during storage.
AV, Storage Time, DaysConcentration, mg KOH/gp-Value, Treatment Within Storage Time
Control SausagesSausages with Salicornia perennans
02.1 ± 0.22.2 ± 0.20.610
22.8 ± 0.22.9 ± 0.20.570
43.3 ± 0.23.3 ± 0.20.920
63.9 ± 0.23.6 ± 0.20.028
84.7 ± 0.34.1 ± 0.30.003
105.5 ± 0.34.6 ± 0.3<0.001
Table 6. Color dynamics of sausages during refrigerated storage under light exposure.
Table 6. Color dynamics of sausages during refrigerated storage under light exposure.
DayL*a*b*Color Stability, %ΔE* vs. Day 0
ControlSalicornia perennansp-ValueControlSalicornia perennansp-ValueControlSalicornia perennansp-ValueControlSalicornia perennansControlSalicornia perennans
059.8 ± 1.157.9 ± 1.00.07114.6 ± 0.410.3 ± 0.30.00116.2 ± 0.920.3 ± 0.80.004100.0100.00.000.00
259.2 ± 1.057.6 ± 0.90.08014.1 ± 0.410.1 ± 0.30.00116.7 ± 0.920.6 ± 0.80.00396.698.10.930.47
458.4 ± 1.057.3 ± 0.90.09113.6 ± 0.49.9 ± 0.30.00117.3 ± 0.920.9 ± 0.80.00293.296.12.040.94
657.6 ± 0.956.9 ± 0.90.10213.0 ± 0.49.7 ± 0.30.00117.9 ± 0.821.1 ± 0.80.00289.094.23.211.41
857.1 ± 0.956.7 ± 0.90.13512.5 ± 0.49.6 ± 0.30.00118.3 ± 0.821.3 ± 0.80.00285.693.24.011.71
1056.8 ± 0.956.5 ± 0.90.15212.0 ± 0.49.8 ± 0.30.00118.5 ± 0.821.4 ± 0.80.00182.295.14.591.85
Table 7. Ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and antioxidant activity (DPPH).
Table 7. Ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and antioxidant activity (DPPH).
IndicatorResultsp-Value
Control SausagesSausages with Salicornia perennans
Ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), mg GAE/gNot detected14.5 ± 0.05<0.0001
DPPH radical-scavenging activity, %12.46 ± 0.0122.60 ± 0.02<0.0001
IC50 of DPPH radical-scavenging activity, µg/mL116.6 ± 10.0073.2 ± 5.00.002
Table 8. Sensory profile of control sausages and sausages with 3% Salicornia perennans (10-point intensity scale; mean ± SD, n = 15; overall acceptability—9-point).
Table 8. Sensory profile of control sausages and sausages with 3% Salicornia perennans (10-point intensity scale; mean ± SD, n = 15; overall acceptability—9-point).
DomainDescriptor (Anchor)Control (Mean ± SD)3% Salicornia (Mean ± SD)p-Value
AppearanceRedness (a* perception)7.2 ± 0.65.1 ± 0.5<0.001
AppearanceColor uniformity7.8 ± 0.77.6 ± 0.60.38
OdorTypical meat aroma7.0 ± 0.66.8 ± 0.60.29
OdorHerbaceous/sea-vegetable note2.1 ± 0.74.3 ± 0.8<0.001
OdorRancid/warmed-over2.8 ± 0.62.0 ± 0.50.002
FlavorSaltiness6.1 ± 0.55.7 ± 0.50.015
FlavorUmami/savory6.8 ± 0.66.9 ± 0.60.62
FlavorBitterness2.4 ± 0.52.6 ± 0.50.21
FlavorOff flavor2.3 ± 0.52.0 ± 0.40.047
TextureJuiciness6.5 ± 0.76.8 ± 0.60.041
TextureFirmness5.9 ± 0.65.8 ± 0.60.55
AftertasteHerbaceous persistence2.0 ± 0.64.0 ± 0.8<0.001
(Optional)Overall acceptability (9-point)7.0 ± 0.67.2 ± 0.60.18
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Tokysheva, G.; Konysbayeva, D.; Myrzabayeva, M.; Ospankulova, G.; Dairova, K.; Battalova, N.; Makangali, K. Application of Salicornia perennans Powder in Sausage Production: Effects on Fatty Acid Profile, Oxidative Stability, Color, and Antioxidant Properties and Sensory Profile. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 10556. https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910556

AMA Style

Tokysheva G, Konysbayeva D, Myrzabayeva M, Ospankulova G, Dairova K, Battalova N, Makangali K. Application of Salicornia perennans Powder in Sausage Production: Effects on Fatty Acid Profile, Oxidative Stability, Color, and Antioxidant Properties and Sensory Profile. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(19):10556. https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910556

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tokysheva, Gulzhan, Damilya Konysbayeva, Malika Myrzabayeva, Gulnazym Ospankulova, Kalamkas Dairova, Nuray Battalova, and Kadyrzhan Makangali. 2025. "Application of Salicornia perennans Powder in Sausage Production: Effects on Fatty Acid Profile, Oxidative Stability, Color, and Antioxidant Properties and Sensory Profile" Applied Sciences 15, no. 19: 10556. https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910556

APA Style

Tokysheva, G., Konysbayeva, D., Myrzabayeva, M., Ospankulova, G., Dairova, K., Battalova, N., & Makangali, K. (2025). Application of Salicornia perennans Powder in Sausage Production: Effects on Fatty Acid Profile, Oxidative Stability, Color, and Antioxidant Properties and Sensory Profile. Applied Sciences, 15(19), 10556. https://doi.org/10.3390/app151910556

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