Verification of a VR Play Program’s Effects on Young Children’s Playfulness

Abstract

This study verified the effects of a Virtual Reality (VR) play program on young children’s playfulness using a Solomon four-group experimental design. Targeting 120 children aged four and five in South Korea, a 10-week, child-friendly non-immersive VR program was conducted, measuring five subdomains of playfulness based on Barnett’s framework: physical, social, and cognitive spontaneity, manifestation of enjoyment, and sense of humor. Statistical analysis revealed that the VR program had a significant positive effect across all subdomains of playfulness. The biggest influence on playfulness was sense of humor, followed by physical spontaneity and social spontaneity with an overall effect size of 0.290. Furthermore, the lack of interaction effects with the pretest confirmed the study’s internal validity, proving the VR program was the clear causal factor. These results provide empirical evidence that VR play can enhance the emotional, cognitive, and social development of young children. This study offers a practical basis for integrating VR-based play into early childhood education curricula and suggests its potential to improve peer relationships, confidence, and self-expression. Future research is needed, including the development of content to enhance cognitive spontaneity and longitudinal studies.

1. Introduction

Young children grow in various domains—physical, cognitive, social, and emotional—through play [1,2], and especially voluntary and active play experiences are known to be essential for the development of creativity, problem-solving ability, and social skills [3]. Today, children in industrialized nations gain diverse experiences through digital media [4], and neologisms such as “digital natives” [5] and “digital children” [6] clearly demonstrate how much children’s digital usage skills and understanding have advanced. As digital technologies have developed, the definition of digital play has also evolved. In particular, since the 2010s, the spread of tablet PCs and the development of child-oriented applications have rapidly increased young children’s use of digital technologies, leading to a surge in research on digital play in early childhood education [7,8]. Amid these changes, VR technology presents new possibilities for young children’s play environments.

VR provides users with immersive experiences in either realistic or entirely novel environments. These characteristics show its potential for wide use in education and entertainment [9]. Especially in the field of education, VR is gaining attention as a tool that stimulates learners’ interest, encourages active participation, and enhances learning outcomes through experiences similar to the real world [10]. From socio-cultural and ecological perspectives, VR is understood as a phenomenon where children’s everyday experiences naturally manifest as play [11] and is widely utilized in early childhood education in the form of edutainment that combines educational purposes with entertainment value [12]. In particular, VR is noteworthy in that it enables real-time, bidirectional interaction and creates entirely new environments in digital space that young children can directly act upon, explore, and manipulate [13,14]. This was highlighted as a core technology at CES 2023 [15] and has become one of the most prominent forms of digital play based on emerging technologies in the Fourth Industrial Revolution era. VR provides active experiences beyond temporal and spatial limitations, arouses learners’ enjoyment and sustained motivation to learn [16], allows them to experience situations impossible in reality, freely manipulate virtual objects, observe immediate changes, share virtual spaces with peers, and collaborate on imaginative storytelling [17,18]. Through these processes, young children continue symbolic play and interact with various peers [19].

While VR has been used in education for some time, one of the challenges faced by educational institutions has been the high cost. However, in recent years, VR technology has significantly advanced, becoming more modern, affordable, and accessible [10]. Nevertheless, research on digital play using VR in early childhood education remains limited. Fully immersive VR has not become widespread due to the perception that additional devices such as HMDs or haptic controllers are unsuitable for young children [6,20,21]. Currently, VR research in early childhood education is mainly conducted using limited forms of virtual reality [22,23], which utilize the immersive features of VR while being implementable without additional devices, thereby overcoming the limitations of real-world settings.

This study attempts to answer the research question, “Does the VR play program have a positive effect on the playability development of children?” To achieve this goal, we analyze the effectiveness of the VR play program through a statistical hypothesis verification procedure and suggest a strategic direction for the possibility of using VR technology in the early childhood education field and qualitative improvement.

For the research design, the Solomon 4-group design was used. The Solomon 4-group design is one of the most powerful experimental design methods that divides the experimental group and the control group into two groups (the test group before and after the experiment and the group that only performs the post-test), respectively. This design has the advantage of effectively controlling the effect of the pre-test on the experimental results and at the same time increasing both the internal and external validity of the study.

Through this design, we will analyze the impact of VR play programs on children’s playability sub-areas, such as physical spontaneity, social spontaneity, cognitive spontaneity, expression of pleasure, and sense of humor, and specifically present the effect size.

2. Theoretical Background

2.1. VR

VR refers to a simulated environment in which users experience telepresence and interact within a 3D space using an HMD (Head-Mounted Display) [24,25]. VR technology began with Ivan Sutherland’s research on HMDs in 1968 [26] and has since emerged as a core technology of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, evolving alongside advancements in network technologies, computers, and smart media. Technically, VR is defined by four core elements: immersive display, graphic rendering systems, tracking systems, and virtual space database construction systems [27]. Virtual reality allows users to interact with virtual worlds and the objects within them using digital tools, making them feel as though they physically exist in those environments [28].

As interest in VR-based education increases, there have been growing attempts to utilize VR in educational and training contexts in line with technological advancement. A 2016 study revealed that U.S. consumers regarded VR as more important in tourism/adventure (73.5%) and education (63.9%) than in gaming (61%) [29]. Virtual reality plays a significant role in the future direction of education. It enhances education by providing memorable and highly immersive experiences [30]. Educational VR applications create active learning environments and serve as powerful tools for gaining insights into complex problems and causal concepts through virtual experiments [31]. Early studies have shown that learning effects in VR environments involve immersion [29], and VR enables users to be fully immersed in content and experience it interactively [32]. Virtual reality provides students with vivid experiences that aid learning. It contributes to education in various ways, such as enhancing the overall learning process, offering experiential learning, removing language barriers, and creating safe learning environments.

Mystakidis [33] emphasized that VR could be an engaging and effective tool, particularly for early childhood, as it serves as a remote play-based social environment. Radianti et al. [34] analyzed that VR enhances learning effects by offering immersion, interactivity, and realism in educational and training settings, and by allowing learners to experience virtually those scenarios that are difficult or dangerous to access in real life, thereby improving engagement and understanding. Vasilev & Vasileva [35] noted that VR can increase student engagement and assist in visualizing complex concepts, especially in the fields of science and engineering. Allcoat & Muhlenen [36] also reported that VR-based learning showed more positive outcomes in terms of learning performance and satisfaction compared to traditional learning methods.

Although most studies in early childhood education use limited forms of VR or virtual worlds—due to concerns about the physical developmental effects of HMD use [6,20] and the difficulty of device dissemination [21]—research findings have reported that VR positively influences increased physical activity in young children [37], rehabilitation support [38,39,40], development of symbolic play [41], and anxiety reduction [42]. Thus, the potential for VR use in early childhood education remains high.

2.2. Playfulness

Play is an instinctive and essential activity for early childhood development, and playfulness refers to the tendency of an individual to engage in play, perceive play experiences, and interact with them. In today’s rapidly changing social and technological environment, research on young children’s playfulness has gained increased attention and is being conducted from various perspectives.

Piaget [1] viewed play as an important activity for infants to understand the world and develop cognitive structures, and classified it into functional play and symbolic play. Functional play, in which the activities that move the body in the VR environment satisfy the infants’ intrinsic physical activity needs and increase their physical spontaneity. For example, in a virtual experience such as the Dinosaur Age, the behavior of an infant leaning toward avoiding dinosaurs promotes the development of motor skills beyond simple enjoyment, and the experiences beyond the reality provided by VR stimulate the infants’ imagination to improve cognitive spontaneity and sense of humor. Like the ‘Firefighter Experience’, the process of creating a story by manipulating virtual objects functions as an important symbolic play that develops cognitive flexibility and creative thinking.

Vygotsky [2] emphasized play as an important learning process that takes place in social interaction and cultural context. In particular, play is a key activity that forms a close development area in which infants experience beyond their own level of development through cooperation with others. VR play expands the concepts of ‘social interaction’ and ‘tools and mediation’ from Vygotsky’s theoretical point of view.

Masek and Stenros [43] presented six fundamental themes of playfulness, including willingness to engage in play, openness to various contexts, and a sense of humor across all age groups and measurement tools. They emphasized that playfulness is not a singular trait but a dynamic characteristic shaped by multiple elements. For young children, play is an attitude and disposition characterized by enjoyment and voluntary participation and is defined by the free expression of internal dispositions and freedom from external influences [44,45]. Playfulness is defined as an intrinsic personality trait in children and is composed of five core components: physical spontaneity, social spontaneity, cognitive spontaneity, expression of enjoyment, and sense of humor [46,47].

Children’s playfulness is closely associated with prosocial skills, confidence, imagination, and divergent thinking, which are reaffirmed as important predictors of future cognitive and socio-emotional development [48]. In particular, children with high playfulness tend to participate more actively in peer play, which has been shown to contribute to positive social development [49]. Moreover, playfulness contributes to school readiness and formal school adjustment, suggesting that play is essential not only for academic achievement but also for social and emotional preparedness. These studies support the idea that playfulness plays a critical role in children’s overall adjustment and development, extending beyond mere enjoyment [50].

The 2022 report from the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) [51] emphasized the importance of creating playful learning environments that leverage children’s natural curiosity and exploratory tendencies. This implies that children can achieve effective learning through experiences that are enjoyable, meaningful, actively engaging, and socially interactive.

Children learn through new play and questioning, enjoy sensory challenges, and show a tendency to learn from mistakes without prejudice [52]. Playfulness is a psychological construct representing the internal disposition underlying such play behaviors [53]. Ahn & Lim [54] reported that children’s social spontaneity, cognitive spontaneity, and expression of enjoyment predicted peer adaptation, emotional and self-state outcomes, while social and physical spontaneity predicted prosocial behavior and daily adjustment. Highly playful children displayed more prosocial behavior [55], and VR-based education positively influenced the level of play in children with cerebral palsy, showing that playfulness was positively related to volition and self-efficacy [43]. Foley [56] suggested that playfulness had both direct and indirect effects on self-regulation ability and social competence. Mystakidis [33] also found that play-based learning in social virtual reality (S-VR) could enhance academic interest, intrinsic motivation, engagement, and satisfaction.

3. Research Method

3.1. Research Hypotheses

Following the pandemic, the expansion of digital environments has also brought changes to young children’s play, prompting a rise in related studies. Research has explored how playfulness manifests and changes within digital media environments, and analyzed how the quality of media content and the interaction methods of young children influence playfulness [57]. Mystakidis [33] emphasized that playfulness is a core element in media such as computer games, and explored how emerging technologies like VR affect play. These studies suggest that while digital tools have the potential to expand children’s imagination and creative expression, maintaining a balance with offline play is essential. In a study by Shin, Soogyeong [58], it was found that children’s play spontaneity (in the order of physical, social, and cognitive) had a significant impact on their play concentration. Based on these prior studies, this study sets up a research question that “VR play programs will have a positive influence on children’s playability,” and seeks to verify this through the following 5 research hypotheses.

H1. 

VR play program have a positive effect on the physical spontaneity of young children.

H2. 

VR play program have a positive effect on the social spontaneity of young children.

H3. 

VR play program have a positive effect on the cognitive spontaneity of young children.

H4. 

VR play programs have a positive effect on young children’s expressions of enjoyment.

H5. 

VR play programs have a positive effect on young children’s sense of humor.

3.2. Research Design

3.2.1. Measurement Items for Playfulness

To measure the playfulness of young children in this study, measur61ement items were developed and used based on the Children’s Playfulness Scale (CPS) developed by Barnett [46], adapted to fit VR-based play experience education. This scale consists of five domains: physical spontaneity, social spontaneity, cognitive spontaneity, expression of enjoyment, and sense of humor. Definitions and related prior studies for each hypothesis and domain of playfulness are presented in

Table 1. Operational Definitions of Playfulness.

Test Area		Operational Definition	Related Research
Playfulness	Physical Spontaneity	A tendency to actively move the body during play, exhibiting good coordination among body parts and enjoying dynamic movement.	[43,47,50,57,59,60,61,62,63]
	Social Spontaneity	A tendency to be cooperative during play, to make friends easily, to respond positively to peers’ approaches, and to share toys.
	Cognitive Spontaneity	A tendency to flexibly use toys during play, to take initiative, to perform various roles, and to engage in creative behaviors.
	Expression of Enjoyment	A tendency to freely express enjoyment, happiness, satisfaction, enthusiasm, monologs, boasting, and smiles during play.
	Sense of Humor	A tendency to tell funny stories, be playful, act silly, and laugh easily at humorous situations.

. The total score ranges from 5 to 125, with higher scores indicating higher levels of playfulness. The specific item composition and reliability of each subfactor of this assessment tool are presented in Table 1.

The total score ranges from 5 to 125, with higher scores indicating higher levels of playfulness. The specific item composition and reliability of each subfactor of this assessment tool are presented in

Table 2. Composition and Reliability of the Playfulness Rating Scale.

Test Area	Measurement Items	Number of Questions	Cronbach’s α
Physical Spontaneity	1. The child demonstrates good coordination between different body parts during play activities. 2. The child moves their body actively during play. 3. The child prefers active play over sedentary play. 4. The child moves a lot during play (e.g., jumps around, runs around).	4	0.842
Social Spontaneity	5. The child responds easily to other children’s approach during play. 6. The child plays cooperatively with other children. 7. The child shares toys and plays with others. 8. The child tries to get along with other children. 9. The child makes friends easily.	5	0.853
Cognitive Spontaneity	10. The child tends to take the lead when playing with others. 11. The child tries to take on the leader role during play. 12. The child creates their own unique play methods. 13. The child uses objects freely and creatively without being constrained. 14. The child tries out a variety of character roles during play. 20. The child sings or talks while playing.	6	0.895
Expression of Enjoyment	15. The child does not insist on doing only one activity but changes activities. 16. The child seems to enjoy play. 17. The child appears energetic during play. 18. The child is deeply engaged in play. 19. The child expresses emotions freely during play.	5	0.846
Sense of Humor	21. The child enjoys telling funny stories with other children. 22. The child is playful during play. 23. The child tells amusing stories well. 24. The child laughs easily at funny or silly stories. 25. The child likes to act playfully or comically during play.	5	0.858
Total		25	0.859

.

3.2.2. Solomon Four-Group Experimental Design

The Solomon four-group design is an experimental design introduced by Campbell and Stanley [64]. This design combines the pretest-posttest control group design with the posttest-only control group design. Participants are randomly assigned into four groups. A pretest is administered to two of the groups, and then an experimental treatment is applied to one of the pretested groups and one of the non-pretested groups. Finally, all four groups undergo a posttest. Campbell & Stanley [64] and Helmstadter [65] asserted that this design is the most desirable, as it controls for external factors such as history and maturation, thereby enhancing internal validity. In particular, it allows researchers to identify the presence of interactions between pretests and experimental treatments—known as test reactivity or pretest sensitization—and thus helps avoid threats to external validity. Namgoong [66] emphasized that the Solomon four-group experimental design is a robust method that provides strong control over factors threatening both internal and external validity, including the effects of extraneous variables, pretests, and test-treatment interactions. The experimental design for this study is shown in Figure 1.

3.2.3. Statistical Analysis of the Solomon Four-Group Experimental Design

The hypothesis testing for the Solomon Four-Group experimental design was conducted using a two-way analysis of variance (Two-way ANOVA), following the method of Braver & Braver [67]. This analysis applies two factors—pretest condition and experimental treatment—to the posttest scores.

The two-way ANOVA yields three F-values: the main effect of the experiment, the main effect of the pretest, and the interaction effect between the pretest and the experiment. Through this, it is possible to determine whether pretest sensitivity exists. If an interaction is present and the experimental effect disappears without a pretest, it suggests the presence of pretest sensitivity. If there is no interaction and the experimental main effect is not statistically significant, then analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) can be used to analyze posttest scores with pretest scores as covariates. Huck & McLean [68] demonstrated that ANCOVA testing is equivalent to interaction testing. Researchers typically prefer ANCOVA. If the results of the ANCOVA test are statistically significant, the experiment can be considered effective; if not, a t-test may be conducted. If the significance test yields significant results, the experiment is considered to have an effect; if not, no evidence of experimental effect can be concluded.

3.3. Participants

This study was conducted with 120 children aged 4 and 5 from daycare centers. These daycare centers operated similar curricula and were of similar size. Infants participating in the study were composed of study subjects who sufficiently explained the purpose of this study to their guardians and submitted parental consent. The study participants were divided into two experimental groups (I and II), which had VR play program environments installed, and two control groups (I and II), which followed a general curriculum. The gender and age distribution of the participating children is shown in

Table 3. Gender and Age of Children.

Group	Age		Gender		N
	4	5	Male	Female
Experimental Group I	15	15	17	13	30
Experimental Group II	15	15	11	19	30
Control Group I	15	15	16	14	30
Control Group II	15	15	14	16	30

.

3.4. VR Equipment

The VR play program system used in this study was built as a non-immersive virtual reality environment rather than a way for infants to wear VR goggles (HMD) directly, taking into account the physical and cognitive characteristics of infants, and it is a way to illuminate virtual environments through large screens or beam projectors and interact with infants using safe tools such as lanterns. Therefore, it fundamentally blocked most of the risks arising from the use of VR goggles. Infants are clearly aware of real spaces and are active, which can significantly reduce the risk of falls or collisions. Physical safety was considered as a top priority, as the activity plan also stated to “secure a large classroom space and experience it safely”.

As shown in

Table 4. VR Equipment.

Sensebox	Kinect, IR camera (for infrared detection), speakers (Microsoft, Redmond, WA, USA)
Server PC	Windows 10 Pro—Intel Core i5 processor, 8 GB RAM, 128 GB (Microsoft, Redmond, WA, USA)
Beam projector	Panasonic VX610 5500 ANSI lumens (Panasonic, Osaka, Japan)
Front camera	Logitech C920 motion detection camera, 94 × 43.3 × 71 mm (Logitech, Lausanne, Switzerland)
Frame-type screen	3715 × 2150 mm (Kizzle, Seoul, Republic of Korea)
Group teaching aids	Fire truck and costumes, ball pit ball, scissors and bottle doll, infrared light, footboard (Kizzle, Seoul, Republic of Korea)
Non-Immersive content	Content (themes, work (safety) art gallery, sports activities, position/posture recognition, 3D learning play (Kizzle, Seoul, Republic of Korea)
Digital teaching materials	Teacher digital teaching materials and environment configuration (Kizzle, Seoul, Republic of Korea)

, the technical configuration is as follows. The system is largely divided into hardware and software and is designed to promote active interaction in infants. First, the server PC, which forms the core of the system, was in charge of content driving and data processing with Intel Core i5 CPU, 8 GB RAM, and 128 GB of storage space based on the Windows 10 Pro operating system. Sensebox was used as the main sensor for recognizing the infant’s motion, which played a role in accurately detecting the infant’s whole body motion through Kinect and IR (infrared) cameras. In addition, the front camera, Logitech C920 (Logitech, Lausanne, Switzerland), has been implemented to assist in more detailed motion recognition to enable precise interaction.

To maximize visual immersion, the Panasonic VX610(Panasonic, Osaka, Japan) beam project of 5500 vision was used, and the contents were projected onto a 3715 mm × 2150 mm frame or woodworking screen. Aural feedback was provided through the speakers built into the Sensebox. The contents are realistic contents (AR/VR screens) composed of various areas such as ‘theme’, ‘occupation (safety), ‘art gallery’, and ‘sports activities’, and are designed to enable various learning such as location and posture recognition of infants, 3D learning play, and Korean, English, and math. In addition, group teaching aids such as fire truck models, costumes, ball pools, and scissors teaching aids were linked with the contents to induce interaction between virtual and reality, and footboard mats were provided to individuals to prevent collisions during play. Finally, the teacher controlled the system and configured a learning environment in real-time using a tablet PC equipped with digital teaching materials. These detailed technical implementations are a key factor in ensuring the reproducibility and academic reliability of this study [59].

3.5. Research Procedure

This study was conducted in the order of preliminary study and data analysis over a total of 19 weeks. First, the suitability of the research tool was verified and the appropriate period of the VR program was reviewed through preliminary research conducted from 4 April to 29 April 2024.

In early May, intensive training was conducted on the playability evaluation and inspection procedures of infants and 8 homeroom teachers of the experimental institution to ensure the reliability of the measurement. This study was conducted from 9 May to 27 July 2024, of which the experimental treatment of the VR play program was conducted twice a week for 10 weeks from 16 May to 22 July. For the pre and post-experimental tests, according to the design of Solomon’s 4 groups, only pre-test as performed for the experimental group I and the control group I, and post-test was performed for all 4 groups to control the sensitivity effect of the pre-test. Finally, all data were analyzed and discussed after the post-test was conducted. The research procedures are summarized in

Table 5. Research Procedure.

Research Procedure		Schedule	Details
Literature Review		Selection of literature and research tools  Measurement tool: Children’s playfulness
Preliminary Research		4–29 April 2024	Validation of measurement tool suitability  Subjects: 10 five-year-olds from E daycare and 10 five-year-olds from S daycare not in the experiment  Content: Review of the appropriateness of playfulness test tool and treatment duration for the VR program
Examiner Training		1 May 2024	Examiner training conducted  Participants: Two graduate students in early childhood education (Master’s completed, current PhD students)
Rater Training		2–4 May 2024	Playfulness rater training conducted  Participants: Eight homeroom teachers from experimental institutions
Main Study	Pre-test	9–12 May 2024	Pre-test conducted  Groups: 15 four-year-olds and 15 five-year-olds from Experimental Group I and Control Group I  Content: Playfulness pre-test
	Experimental Treatment	16 May–22 July 2024 (10 weeks)	Experimental Group: Regular early education program + VR program using metaverse (2 times/week) Control Group: Regular early education program
	Post-test	25–27 July 2024	Post-test conducted  Groups: 15 four-year-olds and 15 five-year-olds from Experimental Groups I and II and Control Groups I and II  Content: Playfulness post-test
Data Analysis and Discussion		Analysis of playfulness data from VR program Discussion of results

.

As shown in

Table 6. VR Education Program.

Session	Theme Experience	Job Experience	Art Experience
	(Weekly)
1	Ranch Experience	Firefighter	Creating Our Kindergarten Art Gallery
2	Dinosaur Age
3	Light and Shadow
4	Underwater Exploration	Plant Doctor	Draw and Color
5	Insect Collecting
6	Fishing Play
7	Republic of Korea	Archeologist	Famous Paintings I
8	Farming Experience
9	Space Travel
10	Winter Play	Environmental Activist	Famous Paintings II

, the program consisted of three main areas: theme experience, job experience, and art experience. Activities in each area were carried out according to the plan for each session. The theme experience was held once a week for a total of 10 sessions. As for detailed activities, starting with the first ranch experience, dinosaur era, light and shadow, underwater exploration, insect harvesting, fishing, Korea, farming experience, space travel, and winter play were sequentially conducted.

Job experience and art experience were planned once every three weeks, a total of four sessions each. Job experience consisted of firefighters, plant doctors, archeologists, and environmental activists, and art experience consisted of making our original art museum, drawing and coloring, art museum masterpiece I, and art museum masterpiece II.

The VR education program used in this study used a screen-based system, not HMD, to prevent side effects such as motion sickness, headache, and nausea from occurring. In addition, there was a dedicated researcher who could observe infants’ facial expressions, behaviors, and physical discomfort in real time during the experiment.

As an example of the program used in this study, the firefighter experience was developed for the purpose of improving children’s safety ability and social skills as shown in

Table 7. Example of Firefighter VR Experience Program.

VR Firefighter	Target Age	Disorder	Sensory Experience		Area
	3–7 Years Old	O	Visual, Auditory, Tactile		Physical Exercise, Health Social Relations
Experience Theme	Firefighter Experience
Objectives	1. Experience how to respond to fires. 2. Control physical movements. 3. Develop attitudes and problem-solving skills to recognize and predict hazards in various situations.
Environment Setup	Kizzle firefighter experience, fire truck model, firefighter vest, lantern, fire hose, Tomonote multi-content, activity sheets, augmented reality activity sheets
Indoor Interest Area and Experience Play
Indoor Interest Area 1	We protect our neighborhood! (Discussion)
Indoor Interest Area 2	Firefighter (Tomo Job ZONE—Current Job)
VR Firefighter Experience
A way of doing something	1. Talk about firefighters. 2. Learn about what firefighters do. 3. Experience ‘Firefighter’ <How to play>   ① Set the order.   ② Three to four people come out in order, hold the fire hose, and stand at the starting line.   ③ Listen to the signal and shine a fire hose lantern towards the fire.   ④ Use a fire hose to extinguish the fire where the fire broke out. (At this time, if the fire cannot be turned off for a certain period of time, the size of the fire increases again.)   ⑤ Make sure all the lights are off and return to their place when the stage ends. 4. Evaluate the activities by completing them.
Points to Note in Activities	1. It supports safe experience by securing a large classroom space. 2. Learn about the tools firefighters use (fire suits, helmets, air respirators, gloves/boots, portable lights, face masks, etc.). 3. When conducting fire-related preventive safety education, specialized education > safety education > disaster preparedness safety education and fire escape training contents can be used
Disability integration	1. Integrate instruction by adjusting the intensity of activity (fast-slow-slow-slow-slow-slow).
Activity evaluation	1. Knowing how to cope with fire, become a firefighter and evaluate whether the fire has been safely extinguished through the course of activities. 2. Evaluate whether knowledge and skills related to fire safety have been improved through verbal interaction. 3. We evaluate through observation whether we were able to predict and predict risk factors that may arise in various situations and develop attitudes and problem-solving skills.
Interest Expansion Activities	Fire Safety Quiz (Game)			Firefighter (Augmented Reality)
Photos

. The program was designed as an experiential activity using complex senses such as sight, hearing, and touch in consideration of the level of development of young children’s.

The program process was organized into four stages: introduction, development, activity, and finishing. In the core activity stage, young children’s were wearing safety gear and three to four young children’s were teamed up to cope with the fire using a fire hose model at the virtual fire site. To ensure the participation of all young children’s, the program considered integrated education for the disabled, such as activity intensity and speed control, early childhood evaluation was conducted throughout the course of activity, and understanding of how to respond to fire and safe participation were comprehensively evaluated through observation of the course of activity. In addition, fire safety knowledge and skills were improved through verbal interaction, and risk prediction and problem solving ability were cultivated through observation. The example of Firefighter VR experience program was summarized in Table 7.

4. Findings

This study derived hypotheses to examine whether the VR play education program affects the sub-factors of playfulness in young children—namely physical spontaneity, social spontaneity, cognitive spontaneity, expression of joy, and sense of humor—and verified them statistically using the statistical hypothesis testing procedure of the Solomon four-group design. To determine whether the VR play program positively influences these sub-factors of playfulness, two-way ANOVA and T-tests were conducted according to the hypothesis testing procedure presented in Figure 2, in order to examine both the effects of the pretest and the effectiveness of the VR program education. The hypothesis testing pathway is shown in Figure 2.

4.1. Playfulness Hypothesis Test

To verify whether the VR program activities have a positive effect on children’s playfulness, a two-way ANOVA was conducted to test the interaction significance of experimental condition and pretest condition.

First, the hypothesis that VR play education would have a positive effect on children’s physical spontaneity was tested using ANOVA and T-test to confirm the effects of the pretest and the VR education program. The hypothesis testing path is shown in Figure 2. A two-way ANOVA was conducted to verify whether VR play education activities had a positive effect on children’s physical spontaneity, specifically checking the interaction significance of experimental conditions and pretest conditions.

As shown in

Table 8. ANOVA Results for Physical Spontaneity by Experimental and Pretest Conditions.

Category	Type III Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Significance Level
Experiment Condition	5.633	1	5.633	16.041	0.000
Pretest Condition	0.833	1	0.833	2.373	0.126
Experiment × Pretest Interaction	0.252	1	0.252	0.718	0.399
Error	40.738	116	0.351
Total	2003.625	120
R2 = 0.124 (Adjusted R2 = 0.109)

, the interaction between the experimental condition and pretest condition was not statistically significant, with F = 0.718 and p = 0.399. Since the interaction was not significant, an experimental effect test was performed as shown in

Table 9. Test of the Experimental Effect on Physical Spontaneity Between Experimental Group I and Control Group I.

Physical Spontaneity	t	sf	p-Value	Mean Difference	Std. Error of Difference
	3.991	58	0.000	0.525	0.132

between Experimental Group I and Control Group I, who both completed pre- and post-tests. The results showed a significant difference with t = 3.991 and p = 0.000.

Therefore, it can be concluded that VR play education has a statistically significant effect on increasing physical spontaneity, and hypothesis H1 is accepted.

Second, to determine whether VR play program activities have a positive effect on young children’s social spontaneity, a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted, and the significance of the interaction between experimental status and pre-test status was examined. The hypothesis testing path is shown in Figure 2. Therefore, it can be concluded that VR play education statistically significantly increases social spontaneity, and Hypothesis H2 was accepted as seen in

Table 10. ANOVA Analysis Results for Social Spontaneity by Experimental and Pre-test Conditions.

Category	Type III Sum of Squares	sf	Mean Square	F	Significance Level
Experimental Group	9.296	1	9.296	23.052	0.000
Pre-test Group	0.056	1	0.056	0.140	0.709
Experimental × Pre-test	1.587	1	01.587	3.935	0.051
Error	46.780	116	0.403
Total	1837.960	120

and

Table 11. Test of the Experimental Effect on Social Spontaneity Between Experimental Group I and Control Group I.

Social Spontaneity	t	sf	p-Value	Mean Difference	Std. Error of Difference
	3.864	118	0.000	0.463	0.120

.

Third, the hypothesis that VR play education would have a positive effect on young children’s cognitive spontaneity was tested by conducting an ANOVA and T-test to account for the influence of pretests and to confirm the effects of the VR play education. The hypothesis testing path is shown in Figure 2. Therefore, it can be concluded that VR play education statistically significantly enhances cognitive spontaneity, and hypothesis H3 was accepted as seen in

Table 12. ANOVA Analysis Results for Cognitive Spontaneity by Experimental and Pre-test Conditions.

Category	Type III Sum of Squares	sf	Mean Square	F	Significance Level
Experimental Group	2.584	1	2.584	5.378	0.022
Pre-test Group	0.434	1	0.434	0.903	0.343
Experimental × Pre-test	0.002	1	0.002	0.004	0.950
Error	84.565	176	0.480
Total	2464.056	180
R2 = 0.037 (Adjusted R2 = 0.021)

and

Table 13. Test of the Experimental Effect on Cognitive Spontaneity Between Experimental Group I and Control Group I.

Cognitive Spontaneity	t	sf	p-Value	Mean Difference	Std. Error of Difference
	2.001	118	0.048	0.2472	0.1235

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Fourth, the hypothesis that VR play education would have a positive effect on children’s expression of joy was tested using ANOVA and T-test, considering the influence of the pretest and the effectiveness of the VR play education. The hypothesis testing path is shown in Figure 2. As a result, it was concluded that VR play education statistically significantly enhances the expression of joy, and thus Hypothesis H4 was supported as seen in

Table 14. ANOVA Analysis Results for Expression of Joy by Experimental and Pre-test Conditions.

Category	Type III Sum of Squares	sf	Mean Square	F	Significance Level
Experimental Group	2.028	1	2.028	6.132	0.015
Pre-test Group	0.005	1	0.005	0.016	0.899
Experimental × Pre-test	1.200	1	1.200	3.628	0.059
Error	38.365	116	0.331
Total	2155.040	120
R2 = 0.078 (Adjusted R2 = 0.054)

and

Table 15. Test of the Experimental Effect on Expression of Joy Between Experimental Group I and Control Group.

Expression of Joy	t	sf	p-Value	Mean Difference	Std. Error of Difference
	3.598	58	0.001	0.460	0.128

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Fifth, the hypothesis that VR play education would have a positive effect on young children’s sense of humor was tested by conducting ANOVA and T-test in accordance with the analytical procedures, considering the influence of the pretest and the effect of VR play education. The hypothesis testing pathway is shown in Figure 2.

Therefore, it can be concluded that VR play education has a statistically significant effect in enhancing the sense of humor among young children, and Hypothesis H5 was accepted as seen in

Table 16. ANOVA Analysis Results for Humor Sense by Experimental Group and Pretest.

Category	Type III Sum of Squares	sf	Mean Square	F	Significance Level
Experimental Group	5.043	1	5.043	17.460	0.000
Pre-test Group	1.083	1	1.083	3.749	0.055
Experimental × Pre-test	0.008	1	0.008	0.029	0.865
Error	33.505	116	0.289
Total	1958.040	120
R2 = 0.155 (Adjusted R2 = 0.133)

and

Table 17. Experimental Effect Test of Humor Sense for Experimental Group I and Control Group I.

Sense of Humor	t	sf	p-Value	Mean Difference	Std. Error of Difference
	3.105	58	0.003	0.427	0.137

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A summary of the hypothesis tests based on the experimental research results is presented in

Table 18. Summary of Hypothesis Testing Results on Playfulness.

	Path	Hypothesis	Accepted or Rejected
Playfulness	H1	VR play education will affect young children’s physical spontaneity.	Accepted
	H2	VR play education will affect young children’s social spontaneity.	Accepted
	H3	VR play education will affect young children’s cognitive spontaneity.	Accepted
	H4	VR play education will affect young children’s expression of joy.	Accepted
	H5	VR play education will affect young children’s sense of humor.	Accepted

.

The average scores of physical spontaneity, social spontaneity, cognitive spontaneity, expression of enjoyment, and sense of humor—subdomains of playfulness in young children—improved in the VR program group compared to the control group, indicating a significant effect of the VR program on children’s playfulness.

4.2. Experimental Effect Analysis Using Solomon Four-Group Design

To verify the effect of VR play education program on young children’s playfulness, data collected using SPSS 22.0 was analyzed.

This study employed the Solomon Four-Group Design, which tested for homogeneity between O₁ = O₃ (Pre-Test), O₂ = O₅ (Post-Test), and O₄ = O₆ (Post-Test), and confirmed statistically significant differences. The experimental effect was analyzed by comparing O₂ > O₁, O₂ > O₄, O₅ > O₄, O₅ > O₆, O₂ > O₆, and O₅ > O₃ [33].

In the process of analyzing this Solomon Four-Group design, comparisons were made between groups that received the VR play education and those that did not, and between those that took the pre-test and those that did not. The statistical significance of differences in group means was assessed to evaluate the relative effects on the subcomponents of playfulness in

Table 19. Solomon Four-Group Experimental Effect Formula.

Pure Experimental Effect Formula
O2-O1 = Experimental Variable Effect + Pre-Test Effect + Interaction Effect of Measurement and Treatment + Other Extraneous Variables
O4-O3= Pre-Test Effect + Other Extraneous Variables
O5-1/2(O1 + O3) = Experimental Variable Effect + Other Extraneous Variables
O6-1/2(O1 + O3) = Other Extraneous Variables
O2-O5 = Interaction Effect of Measurement and Treatment
Pure Experimental Effect (E) = 〔O5-1/2(O1 + O3)〕-〔O6-1/2(O1 + O3)〕

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4.2.1. Difference Between Pre and Post-Test Scores in Experimental Group I

By examining the difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of Experimental Group I, it is possible to determine the effects of the experimental variable, the pretest effect, the interaction effect between measurement and treatment, and other external variables (e.g., history, maturation). The playfulness-related scores were as follows: physical spontaneity = 0.500, social spontaneity = 0.787, cognitive spontaneity = 0.141, expression of joy = 0.727, humor sense = 0.820, and total score = 0.728. These results indicate that the combined effects of the experimental variable, pretest, interaction between test and treatment, and other external factors were present. These details are summarized in

Table 20. Difference in Pre and Post-measurement values of Playfulness in Experimental Group I.

Experimental Group I (N = 30)		Pre-Test		Post Test		O2-O1
		M	SD	M	SD
Playfulness	Physical Spontaneity	3.717	0.477	4.217	0.486	0.500
	Social Spontaneity	3.480	0.524	4.267	0.529	0.787
	Cognitive Spontaneity	3.339	0.549	3.480	0.524	0.141
	Expression of Enjoyment	3.693	0.305	4.420	0.401	0.727
	Sense of Humor	3.487	0.506	4.307	0.445	0.820
	Total Score	3.531	0.390	4.259	0.380	0.728

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4.2.2. Difference Between Pre and Post-Test Scores in Control Group I

The difference between pre and post-test scores in Control Group I can reveal the effects of the experimental variable, pretest effects, the interaction between testing and treatment, and other extraneous variables (e.g., history, maturation). The score differences for each subdimension of playfulness were as follows: physical spontaneity 0.075, social spontaneity 0.140, cognitive spontaneity 0.150, expression of enjoyment 0.473, sense of humor 0.253, and total score 0.221. These results indicate that the pretest and extraneous variables had little to no effect in either domain as seen in

Table 21. Difference in Pre and post-measurement values of playfulness in Control Group I.

Control Group I (N = 30)		Pre-Test		Post Test		O4-O3
		M	SD	M	SD
Playfulness	Physical Spontaneity	3.617	0.560	3.692	0.532	0.075
	Social Spontaneity	3.340	0.683	3.480	0.636	0.140
	Cognitive Spontaneity	3.400	0.640	3.550	0.677	0.150
	Expression of Enjoyment	3.487	0.607	3.960	0.574	0.473
	Sense of Humor	3.627	0.522	3.880	0.607	0.253
	Total Score	3.487	0.476	3.708	0.495	0.221

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4.2.3. Difference Between Pre and Post-Test Scores in Experimental Group II

To eliminate the effects of pretesting, Experimental Group II and Control Group II were not given a pretest. Assuming the pretest scores were equivalent, the average pretest scores of Experimental Group I and Control Group I were used [52]. In this study, we also applied the average pretest scores of Experimental Group I and Control Group I to examine the effects of the experimental variable and extraneous variables. The analysis showed the following score increases for playfulness: physical spontaneity 0.625, social spontaneity 0.580, cognitive spontaneity 0.463, expression of enjoyment 0.643, sense of humor 0.543, and total score 0.566. These results suggest that the effects of both the experimental variable and extraneous variables were present as seen in

Table 22. Difference in Pre and Post-measurement values of playfulness in Experimental Group II.

Experimental Group II (N = 30)		Post Test		O5-1/2(O1 + O3)
		M	SD
Playfulness	Physical Spontaneity	4.292	0.609	0.625
	Social Spontaneity	3.990	0.623	0.580
	Cognitive Spontaneity	3.833	0.668	0.463
	Expression of Enjoyment	4.233	0.587	0.643
	Sense of Humor	4.100	0.509	0.543
	Total Score	4.075	0.388	0.566

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4.2.4. Difference Between Pre and Post-Test Scores in Control Group II

To identify the effects of other extraneous variables, the difference between pre- and post-test scores in Control Group II was examined. The analysis showed the following differences in playfulness indicators: physical spontaneity 0.281, social spontaneity 0.257, cognitive spontaneity 0.200, expression of enjoyment 0.583, sense of humor 0.153, and total score 0.276. These results indicate that the effects of other extraneous variables were minimal in all areas as seen in

Table 23. Difference in Pre and Post-measurement values of playfulness in Control Group II.

Control Group II (N = 30)		Post Test		O6-1/2(O1 + O3)
		M	SD
Playfulness	Physical Spontaneity	3.950	0.717	0.281
	Social Spontaneity	3.667	0.736	0.257
	Cognitive Spontaneity	3.570	0.779	0.200
	Expression of Enjoyment	4.173	0.698	0.583
	Sense of Humor	3.710	0.575	0.153
	Total Score	3.785	0.482	0.276

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4.2.5. Pure Experimental Effect

Positive values in pure experimental effects indicate that VR play programs had a positive effect on playfulness. A positive change in playfulness scores indicates that the program had a positive impact on attention.

In the 5-point scale measurement for playfulness, the scores were: physical spontaneity 0.344, social spontaneity 0.323, cognitive spontaneity 0.263, expression of enjoyment 0.060, sense of humor 0.390, and total score 0.290. While overall playfulness did not increase significantly, the program appears to have had a positive effect as seen in

Table 24. Pure Experimental Effect.

		Pure Experimental Effect 〔O5-1/2(O1 + O3)〕-〔O6-1/2(O1 + O3)〕
Playfulness	Physical Spontaneity	0.344
	Social Spontaneity	0.323
	Cognitive Spontaneity	0.263
	Expression of Enjoyment	0.060
	Sense of Humor	0.390
	Total Score	0.290

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Quantitative analysis of the pure experimental effect shows that the highest impact was on sense of humor (0.390), followed by physical spontaneity, social spontaneity, cognitive spontaneity, and expression of enjoyment. Based on these results, it can be interpreted that the virtual play-based educational program had a positive effect on young children’s playfulness.

4.2.6. Pretest Effect and Interaction Effect

The effects of pretesting and interaction can be examined by using the difference between the pre-test and post-test scores. In this study, among the variables planned for control, the differences between the post-test scores of Experimental Group I and Control Group I, and those of Experimental Group II and Control Group II, showed that the pretest did not influence the experiment. The interaction effect between the pretest and the experiment was examined by comparing the post-test scores of Experimental Group I (which received a pretest) and Experimental Group II (which did not), and it was confirmed that the pretest had little to no effect on the experimental results as seen in

Table 25. Pretest Effect and Interaction Effect.

		Pretest Effect (O4-O3)-{O6-1/2(O1 + O3)}	Interaction Effect {(O2-O1)-(O4-O3)} -[{O5-1/2(O1 + O3)}-{O6-1/2(O1 + O3)}
Playfulness	Physical Spontaneity	−0.206	0.081
	Social Spontaneity	−0.117	0.324
	Cognitive Spontaneity	−0.050	−0.272
	Expression of Enjoyment	−0.110	0.194
	Sense of Humor	0.100	0.177
	Total Score	−0.055	0.217

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5. Conclusions

5.1. Research Findings and Implications

The results of this study provide strong evidence that the VR play program has a positive effect on enhancing playfulness in young children. By using the Solomon four-group design, the study confirmed a pure experimental effect, excluding the influence of pretesting. This offers highly reliable evidence that the VR play program genuinely contributes to the development of children’s playfulness.

The overall positive effect of 0.290 on the playfulness total score demonstrates that the VR play program is effective in improving children’s overall playfulness. A closer look at the subdomains reveals relatively strong positive effects in humor, physical spontaneity, social spontaneity, and cognitive spontaneity. This indicates that the VR play program is particularly effective in enhancing emotional, physical, social, and cognitive aspects of spontaneity and activity in young children. On the other hand, the relatively lower effect in the expression of joy suggests that the program’s impact on the way children express joy may be more limited compared to other domains. Importantly, the lack of significant interaction effects from pretesting enhances the internal validity of the research design, indicating that the measurement of playfulness was not affected by the pretest experience. In other words, the positive effects of the VR play program are not due to exposure to a pretest but are attributable to the program itself.

In conclusion, this study shows the potential for the VR play program to be used as an effective tool to enhance playfulness in early childhood education. It particularly highlights the educational value of VR play in supporting various dimensions of children’s spontaneity.

First, this study contributed to academic discourse by deriving the conceptual structure and operational definitions of VR play and establishing a foundation for future research. It may serve as a starting point for directing future studies on VR-based play in early childhood.

Second, it empirically demonstrated that the VR play program positively affects all subdomains of playfulness—physical spontaneity, social spontaneity, cognitive spontaneity, expression of joy, and humor. This suggests that VR has the potential to enhance children’s playfulness multidimensionally, supporting the consideration of VR adoption in early childhood educational settings.

Third, the findings indicate that VR play is more effective in enhancing children’s playfulness than existing Nuri curriculum activities. This implies the need for integrating VR play environments in early childhood education and validates the positive educational potential of using advanced digital technologies. It highlights the necessity for future curricula to evolve in the direction of strengthening digital literacy and capabilities.

Fourth, the study showed that play using VR provides new opportunities for peer relationships and expands the openness of play. VR play naturally facilitates interaction among children, helps them form playgroups, provides more successful experiences, boosts confidence, and positively influences their awareness of others. This suggests that the play environment can become a meaningful site for educational transformation.

In short, this study empirically verifies that VR-based play can be a crucial tool for supporting and expanding children’s playfulness. It emphasizes the importance of further research into high-quality content development tailored to children and appropriate utilization strategies by educators. Rather than being a one-time entertainment experience, sustainable VR play education can greatly contribute to the development of creativity and playfulness in young children.

5.2. Limitations

Despite its contributions, this study has several limitations. First, the increase in cognitive spontaneity was relatively lower compared to other subdomains, suggesting that the VR play program may not have had equally strong effects across all aspects of playfulness. This could indicate either that the program did not sufficiently stimulate certain cognitive elements or that the measurement tool failed to fully capture cognitive spontaneity in the VR context. Second, the study sample was limited to 120 children aged 4 to 5 from four daycare centers located in Gyeonggi Province, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to children in other regions or with more diverse backgrounds. Third, the 10-week duration of the program may not have been sufficient to evaluate the long-term effects on the development of playfulness. Given that children’s development is continuous and cumulative, a longer-term follow-up study is needed. Lastly, this study used a limited version of VR or a virtual environment rather than a fully immersive VR system. Therefore, there may be differences in the developmental impact of fully immersive VR systems—such as those involving additional devices like head-mounted displays (HMDs)—on children’s playfulness.

5.3. Future Research

To address the limitations mentioned above, future research can proceed in the following directions. First, it is necessary to develop VR play programs specifically aimed at enhancing cognitive spontaneity. Through such efforts, researchers can explore whether VR play programs can more effectively improve cognitive playfulness in young children. Second, future studies should expand the sample to include a larger and more diverse group of children from different regions and cultural backgrounds in order to enhance the generalizability of the findings. Third, longitudinal research is needed to verify the sustained effects of VR play programs on the development of playfulness in children and to investigate their broader developmental impact in more depth. Lastly, future studies should apply and compare different forms of VR technology (e.g., fully immersive VR) in early childhood education to determine which VR-based play environments are most effective and appropriate for young children. These future research directions will contribute to enhancing the quality of early childhood education using VR technology and provide practical guidelines for effective digital play-based learning.