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Review

Research Progress on Subdivision Water Injection Development Technology for Full-Scale Water Injection Wells

by
Fushen Ren
1,2,
Jinzhao Hu
3,*,
Yan An
4,
Xiaolong Liu
3,
Baojin Wang
1,3 and
Tiancheng Fang
2,3
1
Sanya Offshore Oil & Gas Research Institute, Northeast Petroleum University, Sanya 572024, China
2
Bohai Rim Energy Research Institute, Northeast Petroleum University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China
3
School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Northeast Petroleum University, Daqing 163318, China
4
Drilling & Production Technology Research Institute, LiaoHe Oilfield Company, Panjin 124010, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(17), 9492; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179492
Submission received: 16 November 2024 / Revised: 20 January 2025 / Accepted: 26 August 2025 / Published: 29 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Advances and Future Trend in Enhanced Oil Recovery)
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Abstract

Water injection development represents the predominant development method for enhancing oil recovery (EOR) efficiency and achieving the balanced utilization of oil reservoirs. In light of the current situation of oilfield water injection technology, a comprehensive overview of the evolution of full-scale water injection technology is given, with particular emphasis on the influence of geological factors, technological advancements, and existing challenges. The principal issues currently encountered include an unequal distribution of layers, the complexity of subdivision, casing deformation, and damage to deep well equipment, which collectively impede the effective implementation of subdivision water injection development technology. The novelty of the research lies in the current development status of full-scale injection wells, which is not only reflected in the depth-scale, but also in the operational difficulty-scale. A thorough exploration of subdivision water injection development technologies has been conducted, and the applicability and limitations of these technologies in diverse reservoir conditions have been evaluated. The proposal is for intelligent injection technology to be adopted for medium–shallow heterogeneous wells, and for ball-pitching plugging profile control technology to be adopted for deep/horizontal/special condition wells. A comparative analysis was conducted to evaluate the characteristics, application scenarios, advantages, and disadvantages of intelligent injection technologies, demonstrating its intelligence, automation, and precision in the practical application. In regard to the ball-pitching plugging profile control technology, the design and performance of the plugging ball, the plugging mechanism, and the application effect were elucidated. Based on the existing challenges in the realm of water injection development, the research prospects for full-scale subdivision water injection development technologies were proposed, and the importance of interdisciplinary cooperation and the integration of artificial intelligence technology were also emphasized. This research would provide a technical foundation for increasing oil displacement efficiency, markedly augmenting EOR, and would also be imperative for improving the economic benefits and alleviating the global oil resource tension.

1. Introduction

The rise of the global economy has led to the increased importance of oil as a primary energy source, leading to exponential demand growth. However, the extraction of traditional oil resources is approaching its limits, with deep excavation becoming increasingly costly and technically challenging [1,2]. The threat of depletion looms larger, as gradual declines in reservoir pressure due to crude oil extraction reduce fluidity and permeability, resulting in approximately half of the crude oil remaining trapped underground globally (as stated by the International Energy Agency (IEA), the global average oil recovery rate is between 20% and 50%; the mean recovery rate of developed oil fields that has been calibrated is about 30% [3]), particularly in terrestrial fields. This low recovery rate not only wastes valuable resources but also hinders economic benefits and sustainable production. The shortened production life and high development costs have been identified as significant challenges to the sustainability of the oil industry [4,5]. Therefore, enhancing formation pressure and recovery rates is crucial, with water injection being the predominant technical measure employed.
The development of water injection techniques is confronted with a series of complex challenges, primarily attributable to reservoir heterogeneity and interlayer contradictions, as illustrated in Figure 1. High permeability zones facilitate rapid water flow, whereas low-permeability layers impede adequate water injection, thereby exacerbating interlayer issues and negatively affecting flooding effectiveness and recovery rates [6,7]. Furthermore, the necessity to balance economic benefits with the reduction in water consumption and pollution presents a multifaceted challenge in achieving sustainable practices [8,9,10]. The definition of full-scale injection wells is not only reflected in the depth-scale, but also in the operational difficulty-scale. Specifically, for the depth-scale, the following categories are included: shallow, deep, and ultra-deep wells; for operational difficulty-scale, the following categories are included: sand-out, casing deformation, and mineralized wells; for the classification-scale, the following categories are included: straight, inclined, and horizontal wells.
With regard to operational difficulty-scale injection wells, it is noteworthy that the casing deformation rate in old oil fields exceeds 10%, the proportion of sand-out wells approaches about 20%, and the temperature and pressure in deep wells are above 150 °C and 60 MPa [7,11,12]. As illustrated in Figure 2, the challenges faced in these operational difficulty-scale injection wells highlight the necessity for customized solutions and advanced equipment, thereby increasing demands on technology, equipment, and operational processes.
The layered injection method is an effective means of addressing a range of issues associated with reservoir heterogeneity. Although conventional injection techniques are adequate for meeting early-stage energy requirements, their limitations become evident during the middle to late stages, resulting in suboptimal outcomes [13,14]. The contradictions between the layers result in water breakthrough in the high-permeability layers, while the utilization of low-permeability layers remains challenging. The heterogeneity of reservoirs, both vertically and horizontally, gives rise to discrepancies in water absorption and oil displacement. Conventional methods are inadequate for multi-layer development due to a lack of requisite precision. Furthermore, well casing deformation, limitations in wellbore size, and the high-temperature and high-pressure conditions encountered in deep wells impede equipment stability [15,16]. Consequently, there is an urgent need for research to be conducted on subdivision water injection methods and key technologies in order to overcome these challenges, particularly in full-scale wells and complex reservoirs. This is also shown by looking at past research in this domain from 2010 to 2024 (see Figure 3), which has seen a rapid escalation in publication and citation volume. A comprehensive investigation into the subdivision development methodologies employed in full-scale water injection wells has been conducted, with the objective of achieving fine injection for a range of reservoir characteristics and complex wells. This will increase oil displacement efficiency, and markedly boost EOR, and be of considerable significance for improving the economic benefits, extending the life of the oil field, and alleviating the global oil resource tension.
The present focus of research on subdivision water injection development is predominantly on medium–shallow wells and fine-condition wells, with comparatively less research on deep wells, special wells, and horizontal wells. The novelty lies in the investigation of the current research status of full-scale water injection wells, evaluating the applicability and limitations of different water injection development methods in order to provide a reference for future research. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 focuses on the goals and challenges of subdivision water injection; Section 3 analyzes the research progress of full-scale water injection development, including intelligent injection and pitching profile control technology; Section 4 presents the main problems that currently exist; in Section 5, the research conclusion and future research interests were proposed.

2. Overview of Subdivision Water Injection Development

The subdivision water injection development method involves the water injection into oil layers that exhibit similar properties to reduce interlayer interference between different types of oil layers and enhance the utilization degree. It is an advanced oilfield development strategy that integrates a number of key elements, including geological analysis, injection optimization, and dynamic control. The objective is to enhance the efficacy of water injection, mitigate interlayer interference, and optimize the utilization of oil layers, particularly during high water cut stages. It involves the compartmentalisation of layers, the optimization of the injection process, and the implementation of dynamic regulation, with due consideration of the prevailing geological conditions, the requirements of the development project, and the economic benefits [17]. The precise control of injection parameters and real-time adjustments ensure efficiency and sustainability.
The subsequent steps are summarized in Figure 4 for the subdivision water injection development process [17,18,19] as follows: (1) Evaluate the oil reservoir by considering its geological structure, oil layer distribution, permeability, and porosity; (2) Divide the water injection layers based on geological characteristics, water absorption, interlayer stability, permeability differences, and reservoir thickness/quantity; (3) Design a detailed plan for water injection, including well location, spacing, injection volume, pressure, and connectivity; (4) Implement the plan, install apparatus, monitor reservoir pressure and water absorption, and adjust the plan as needed; (5) Monitor real-time indicators and optimize water injection processes.
Subdivision water injection has improved oilfield production by enhancing injection efficiency, reducing interlayer interference, controlling water content, and extending oilfield lifespan. It engenders economic and social benefits but faces technical complexity, equipment limitations, and environmental standards [7,19]. The limitations of the equipment may affect the precision and efficacy of injection. Furthermore, the increasing focus on environmental protection has resulted in more rigorous environmental standards, necessitating the implementation of enhanced environmental management and pollution control measures [20]. In order to address these challenges and issues, it is necessary to optimize the water injection process method based on different geological and well conditions. This will be achieved by conducting research analysis on full-scale water injection development.
Our overview of subdivision water injection development clarifies its connotations, objectives, implementation processes, and challenges faced, including accuracy, efficiency, and environmental issues under different well conditions. This underscores the imperative for conducting comprehensive research on full-scale water injection development.

3. Research Progress of Full-Scale Water Injection Development

3.1. Research Status of Subdivision Water Injection Development in Water Injection Wells

The segmented water injection development process is designed to address the inherent heterogeneity of reservoir systems, thereby enhancing the efficacy of the injection process. The principal methodologies encompass eccentric/concentric layered, intelligent subdivision, precise chemical profile control, and horizontal well subdivision technologies [21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28]. The eccentric/concentric layered water injection process is capable of reading the data of the underground distributor through fishing or cable measurement, and controlling the distributor opening. The intelligent subdivision process enables real-time monitoring and automatic adjustment of different layers, facilitating simultaneous injection, measurement, and the adjustment of the distributor. The precise chemical profile control process uses chemical agents to seal the high permeability layer to achieve balanced utilization. The horizontal well subdivision process comprises a water distributor, pipe column, and packer, and the opening of the distributor is controlled with communication equipment. The ongoing advancement of technology is expanding the range of possibilities for oilfield development. Table 1 delineates the applicability and limitations of the aforementioned methods in a variety of geological contexts.
The eccentric layered water injection method is optimal for multi-layer and heterogeneous reservoirs, and it makes the injection process more effective. However, this method requires the use of highly precise equipment and operations. Concentric layered injection employs a concentric pipe structure for the precise layers injection, rendering it suitable for small interlayer spaces; however, the process is complex and difficult to adjust [21]. Fine chemical profile control allows for reservoir adjustments with chemicals, although this approach is flexible but limited in certain formations [29,30,31,32], as illustrated in Table 2. Horizontal well injection involves the division of the wellbore, which is applicable to thin, heterogeneous, fractured reservoirs; however, it is limited in high-temperature, low-permeability, sand-producing, deformed formations [28].
The intelligent injection technology facilitates the continuous monitoring and adjustment of the layered water injection process underground in real time, thereby enabling precise control, real-time monitoring, remote operation, and high efficiency and energy savings [33]. However, it is crucial to enhance the reliability and communication stability of the equipment in question, particularly in the context of extreme formation conditions (such as high temperature and high pressure, deep layers, casing deformation, and sand production).
The selection of subdivision water injection development methods should be based on a comprehensive consideration of the reservoir characteristics, including its structure, permeability, and distribution. Accordingly, the challenges associated with the effective development of oil fields at varying depths of water injection wells and under disparate operational conditions, along with the selection of subdivided water injection processes, are illustrated in Figure 5.
In medium-to-shallow heterogeneous oil reservoirs, mechanical layered injection is employed to divide layers by packers and utilize distributors for segmented injection. Intelligent layered injection entails the integration of a multifaceted digital measurement and control system with an underground water distributor, encompassing metering, communication, and control modules. It addresses the issue of low success rates and untimely adjustments, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of water injection processes. In the case of special wells that present challenges such as casing deformation, a low-cost ball-pitching plugging profile control technology may be employed. This utilizes polymer balls to block high-perm boreholes, thereby enhancing the absorption of low-perm layers. In deep, high-temperature and high-pressure wells, this technology ensures stable operation and addresses heterogeneity.
It is therefore recommended that intelligent injection technology be adopted for shallow–medium water injection wells with fine well conditions. This technology can optimize oilfield performance through the real-time monitoring of oilfield status, thereby improving injection efficiency. Conversely, for operational difficulty-scale wells or deep-scale wells, the implementation of ball-pitching plugging profile control technology offers distinct advantages, including cost-effectiveness, efficiency, and ease of operation.

3.2. Research Status of Intelligent Layered Injection Technology

The core of intelligent layered injection technology is the integration water distributor, which integrates flow meters, pressure gauges, thermometers, communication modules, and regulating assemblies. It has the characteristics of real-time detection and can adjust different layers. The development of intelligent layered injection technology has been a gradual process, evolving through four generations of layered water injection [33,34,35], as shown in Figure 6. In the initial iteration of the “fixed layered water injection” process, the packers were used to segregate the layers in order to achieve the desired outcomes. The second generation of “drop-in stratified water injection” technology incorporated advanced packers and distributors, thereby facilitating greater precision. The third generation of “cable layered water injection” and “real-time monitoring and control” enabled the implementation of single-well layered pressure/volume monitoring, thereby facilitating enhanced development. The fourth generation of intelligent layered water injection, which employs the technique of “measuring while injecting,” represents a revolutionary advancement in real-time process monitoring [34].
The integration of internet technology and artificial intelligence technology has enabled the development of intelligent layered injection technology, which is capable of autonomous operation without the necessity for steel wire, cables, and other equipment and personnel. By adjusting and controlling the water injection parameters of each layer, the efficiency of testing and debugging is enhanced, and the technical requirements for the intelligent layered injection of water injection wells are met. In accordance with the structural classification of underground injection apparatus, intelligent layered injection technology can be classified into three principal categories: cable-based, non-contact, and wireless [36,37,38], as illustrated in Figure 7.
Cable-based intelligent layered injection technology facilitates the connection between the underground water distributor and the ground control platform via external cables, thereby enabling the transmission of real-time underground data and the reception of ground control commands. Non-contact intelligent layered injection technology relies on non-contact sensors and wireless communication technology to facilitate the transfer of data between subterranean and surface environments. The wireless intelligent layered injection technology represents an intelligent injection technology that is not constrained by the use of cables. The system is principally dependent on integrated high-energy battery packs for power supply and makes use of wireless communication technology to facilitate data transmission between the subterranean and surface environments, as illustrated in Table 3.
Intelligent injection layered technology represents a significant advancement in the field of oilfield research and implementation. Systems developed by foreign companies, such as Smart Well (Halliburton) and InCharge (Electric), facilitate enhanced monitoring and the control of production processes. Tendeka’s PulseEight employs the use of pressure waves for the purpose of non-contact control [39]. Furthermore, Digital HydraulicsTM and InForce also make a significant contribution [40]. The intelligent layered injection system is predicated on a multifaceted technological framework, encompassing flow detection [41], intelligent measurement control [42,43], and remote communication [44,45]. The integration of these components facilitates a sophisticated management of layered injection and production. China is at the vanguard of this field, with cable-based, non-contact, and cable-free systems that integrate sensors, algorithms, and communications to enable the precise, real-time control of water injection.
The implementation of intelligent injection technology in China’s oilfields has been demonstrated to be a viable proposition. The cable-controlled technology employed in Daqing Oilfield has been shown to facilitate enhanced operational efficiency through the monitoring of flow and pressure. The implementation of wave code communication in Changqing Oilfield has resulted in a high level of success and cost-efficiency. The Intelligent Reservoir Analysis and Optimization System (IRes®3.0) has facilitated a transition from lag to real-time/intelligent optimization of the water drive [36,37], as illustrated in Figure 8. The development of non-contact technology, flow wave monitoring, and data transmission has led to significant advancements in oilfield intelligence and refinement.
In the field of intelligent injection, our research team has developed the non-contact underground intelligent water distribution system and conducted a series of experimental tests [46,47], as illustrated in Figure 9. Furthermore, a reinforcement learning-based stratified water injection control algorithm was proposed to address the issue of stratum flow scheduling in the complex environment of wellbore during stratified water injection [48]. Research found that, as shown in Figure 10, the proposed stratified water injection control algorithm saves 41.94% of training time, with an average injection error of less than 5% with a different number of layer segments. And the average success rate is more than 90%.
The development of technologies such as the Internet of Things, big data, and artificial intelligence will facilitate the advancement of intelligent layered water injection technology, enabling it to achieve more intelligent, automated, and precise regulation. The incorporation of supplementary sensors and intelligent algorithms will empower the intelligent layered water injection system to monitor an array of parameters pertinent to the water injection well in real time, thereby enabling automated adaptations to the water injection plan in accordance with prevailing circumstances. This approach is designed to ensure the optimal operation of the water injection well. The concurrent development of novel materials and instruments is intended to reduce the financial and technical burdens associated with water injection procedures, thereby rendering them more compatible with diverse oil reservoirs and production requirements.
The development of intelligent layered water injection technology has been influenced by the evolution of the Internet of Things and artificial intelligence, whose advancements have enabled the enhancement of the automation and precision of the regulation process. The advent of novel materials and batteries is anticipated to ensure the efficacy of this technology in the long term, particularly in deep and ultra-deep water injection wells.

3.3. Research Status of Ball-Pitching Plugging Profile Control Technology

The ball-pitching plugging profile control technology utilizes the profile control balls to plug the high permeability layer, thereby reducing the effective flow and consequently achieving the effect of adjusting the water absorption profile. It combines the technical advantages inherent to mechanical profile control (e.g., mechanical pipe column pitching, well washing and recovery process) with those associated with chemical profile control (e.g., the shear characteristics, near water density, temperature resistance, pressure resistance of profile control process) and physical profile control (e.g., plugging pressure difference, transportation) [49]. For illustrative purposes, a schematic diagram is provided in Figure 11. This process involves the injection of bespoke profile control balls into the injection well. The movement and sealing effect of these balls within the wellbore enables the precise control of the Injection flow direction [50,51]. The method offers several advantages, including ease of operation, low cost, and a significant effect. It can effectively resolve interlayer conflicts in the oilfield development process, enhance injection efficiency, and improve water flooding efficacy.
The function of the plugging balls is to facilitate a modified distribution of the water injection. The plugging balls display high tensile strength and a density that approaches that of water, enabling the balls to move in synchrony with water and ensuring uniform distribution within the wellbore, which ensures that the probability of the plugging balls occurring within the wellbore is essentially consistent with the ratio of the distribution of injected water. The probability of plugging occurring in the vicinity of the borehole with a high water flow is higher, while the probability of the plugging ball occurring in the vicinity of the borehole with a low water flow is lower. Concurrently, it ensures that the plugging balls can act with precision upon the high water absorption or high permeability layer that requires adjustment [52]. The plugging process is depicted in Figure 12. Upon reaching the vicinity of the water-absorbing layer, the plugging balls will adhere and seal tightly on the boreholes due to the action of the water pressure differential, which enables the water injection profile to be optimally adjusted.
Many experts from abroad have developed expertise in this field. Steven et al. proposed a novel approach utilizing rubber-coated balls to address acidification issues, with the potential to enhance production outcomes in specific regions. Subsequently, experiments were conducted to ascertain the efficacy of the ball-pitching plugging profile control technology [53]. Indoor simulations were conducted to ascertain the factors influencing the efficacy of ball-pitching plugging profile control, and revealed that the density ratio between the plugging ball and the fluid affects the plugging effect. Nozaki et al. conducted an analysis of velocity calculation models for single- and multi-ball situations [54], and subsequently proposed an optimized design process for plugging balls [55]. Gabriel et al. [56] proposed a design method for ball-pitching plugging profile control technology to improve the efficiency of plugging balls, and experiments and fieldwork results demonstrated that the ball-pitching plugging profile control technology increases height and production. However, due to inherent limitations in the production process of balls, the ball density utilized in the experiments is 0.93 g/cm3, 1.0 g/cm3, and 1.1 g/cm3, respectively. This is inadequate to fully match the variation of fluid density and flow.
In China, Zhou et al. [57,58] have elucidated the methodology for regulating the flow of water in wells and have validated the efficacy of a novel technology. The investigation into the movement of a single plugging ball moves within a water injection well has been conducted, and yielded the ball-pitching plugging profile control model, which facilitates the optimization of the water injection rate, fluid, and performance of plugging balls by predicting their behavior [59,60]. Zhao et al. [61] constructed an indoor apparatus to investigate the efficacy of ball-pitching plugging profile control technology in lateral drilling, and investigated the efficacy of plugging balls in holes. The ideal plugging ball and plugging model for forecasting the performance of plugging balls in different types of wells were researched and the efficacy of near-water density sealing balls in diverse scenarios was also demonstrated [62,63,64]. Qu et al. [65] employed machine learning to investigate the operational characteristics of profile control balls, thereby identifying novel methodologies for the selection of optimal pitches and the utilization of profile control technology. In addition to its application in water injection wells, the ball-pitching plugging profile control technology has played an important role in recent years in the recovery of heavy oil and the fracturing of horizontal wells [66,67], with the objective of increasing production. However, discrepancies appear to exist between current research and field conditions, which are as follows: the insufficient consideration of the influence of high-temperature and high-pressure environment on fluid density and viscosity; the coupling effect of flow on the motion state of fluid and balls; the dynamic changes in water absorption after the perforations are plugged; and the insufficient consideration of the movement and re-plugging of the plugging ball during the stopping and re-injecting process. Consequently, on-site experience remains paramount for the ball-pitching plugging profile control technology.
The research on the manufacturing process of plugging balls is primarily concerned with the investigation of the types, materials, manufacturing processes, and force analysis of ball. The most prevalent categories of plugging balls encompass the deformable balls (rubber), inner hard + outer rubber balls, and integral hard balls (plastic) [68,69]. Among these, deformable balls are capable of undergoing deformation when subjected to pressure, thereby becoming embedded within the borehole. The external diameter of inner hard + outer rubber ball exceeds that of the borehole, while the internal diameter is less than that of the borehole. This configuration allows for the embedding of the ball into the borehole under pressure differences. The overall diameter of the integral hard ball is greater than that of the borehole, with the ability of the latter to withstand temperature and pressure enabling the attainment of one-way sealing without deformation. The specific characteristics of the three types of plugging balls are presented in Table 4.
The design, performance, and application effect of plugging balls as a core tool in ball-pitching plugging profile control technology are crucial for the whole profile control process. Regarding the research of plugging balls, the force exerted by the ball in both steady-state and unsteady-state conditions was considered, and the indoor experiments to investigate the physical properties and manufacturing process of plugging ball were conducted [70]. Shao et al. provided a detailed analysis of the performance indexes of profiling balls and investigated the impact of physical properties on the blocking effect [71]. The material and design of the regulating ball have been continuously optimized by experts and scholars at home and abroad in order to enhance its performance in high-temperature, high-pressure, and corrosion-resistant conditions, and to guarantee its continued stability in complex well environments. Concurrently, in accordance with the distinctive attributes of diverse reservoirs and the stipulations pertaining to water injection, an array of regulating spheres has been devised to satisfy the necessities of regulation across a spectrum of conditions. Regarding the preparation of plugging balls, the current approach entails the employment of a singular raw material. This is inadequate, however, in meeting the requirements of diverse reservoir characteristics and injection media. Consequently, the development of multiple types of plugging balls to meet the plugging needs under different conditions should be the research direction for future preparation processes.
In terms of ball-pitching plugging profile control technology, our research team has conducted extensive research on the preparation process and methods of sealing balls [72], and has developed a sealing ball processing and forming method suitable for various working conditions. In addition, research on the plugging mechanism, indoor experiments, and field applications have been conducted [73,74]; this is shown in Figure 13, which demonstrates that the ball-pitching plugging profile control process can significantly improve the profile uniformity, increase injection pressure by plugging the strong water absorption perforations, and achieve the reduction of costs and increase production.
The integration of ball-pitching plugging profile control technology can effectively address the challenges associated with deep wells and special water injection wells, including sand-out, casing deformation, and mineralized wells. This technology can assist in resolving interlayer contradictions and enhancing water flooding effects during the water injection process, thereby facilitating efficient development and stable production growth in oil fields. Ball-pitching plugging profile control technology is an auxiliary and supplementary technology to the intelligent layered injection process, and can resolve the interlayer contradictions in operational difficulty-scale or deep-scale wells. Concurrently, improvements in intelligent algorithms and novel material technologies are propelling the profile control technology towards more intelligent and versatile directions.

4. Main Problems Existing

Most oilfield reservoirs with non-homogeneous properties require layered water injection for stable production and water control. The efficiency of water injection affects formation utilization and recovery, and is critical for regulating decrement and water content [1,7,33]. Research by domestic and international experts has led to technologies and techniques tailored to different geological conditions and well types [34,35,73,74]. However, as development advances, challenges hinder effectiveness; these can be summarized as follows:
(1) As oilfield development progresses, the physical differences between oil layers become more pronounced, resulting in an uneven water flow distribution during water injection. High permeability layers tend to absorb excessive quantities of water, whereas low permeability layers have difficulty achieving effective water injection. Consequently, there is an urgent need to study the intelligent measurement, regulation, analysis, and prediction of the injection process, with the objective of achieving the precise control of water injection in each oil layer.
(2) The subdivision of layers is a challenging aspect of small layer digging, as it gives rise to complications such as the presence of small interlayer distances and small jamming distances. The current state of mechanical injection technology is constrained by the length of tools and unsealing factors. Consequently, there is a necessity to develop an adaptable and highly reliable injection process to surmount the limitations of the card distance.
(3) During the long-term development of water injection, corrosion, pressure changes, and other factors can cause the casing deformation, which may result in the obstruction of the water injection channel. Additionally, sand particles may be carried to block the water injection channel, thereby reducing the injection efficiency. It is therefore necessary to develop a low-cost, high-efficiency, adaptable, simple, and flexible water injection process to address the issues of casing deformation and sand production and to enhance the injection efficiency.
(4) The injection of water into deep wells is frequently conducted in challenging environments. The challenging environment itself presents significant obstacles to the effective deployment of communication technology and monitoring equipment. In large inclination wells, the precise lowering and positioning of layered injection tools represents a significant challenge, particularly in the presence of high friction resistance. Similarly, in wells with a large angle, the ability to lower and position these tools is severely limited. Consequently, the development of customized high-temperature and high-pressure water injection equipment is essential to ensure efficient operations while enhancing accuracy and reliability.

5. Conclusions

A systematic investigation and analysis were conducted on the development progress of full-scale water injection wells, including the challenges, technical processes, and applicability analysis. The primary conclusions that emerged from this investigation are as follows:
(1)
The overview of subdivision water injection development clarified its connotations, objectives, implementation processes, and challenges faced, including accuracy, efficiency, and environmental issues under different well conditions.
(2)
A progress analysis of subdivision water injection development technology for full-scale wells was conducted, encompassing eccentric/concentric layered, intelligent subdivision, precise chemical profile regulation, horizontal well subdivision, and artificial plugging agent technologies. The primary challenges are as follows: achieving high-precision measurement and intelligent adjustment for low permeability layers; the subdivision of small interlayer distances and jamming distances; the inability of the packer in extreme well conditions; and the harsh environments of deep wells.
(3)
Intelligent injection technology has been identified as suitable for shallow–medium water injection wells with fine well conditions, and the ball-pitching plugging profile control technology offers distinct advantages in operational difficulty-scale wells or deep-scale wells.
(4)
The research prospects for full-scale subdivision water injection development technologies were proposed, and the importance of interdisciplinary cooperation and the integration of artificial intelligence technology were also emphasized.
For the development research of full-scale water injection wells, the potential application effects require further exploration due to temporal constraints. The deep integration of advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence and big data is also a limitation. As petroleum engineering technology continues to evolve and oilfield development deepens, the field of segmented water injection development will encounter a heightened level of complexity. Consequently, the primary objective of research in this domain will be to address this challenge:
(1) Intelligent Water Injection Technology: The objective is to enhance the automation and intelligence of the water injection process by researching and applying intelligent water injection technologies, such as intelligent measurement and regulation systems and remote monitoring systems.
(2) Environmentally Friendly Water Injection Technology: The objective is to develop environmentally friendly water injection processes with the aim of reducing pollution and damage to the stuctural formation of the well and the environment during the water injection process. This will contribute to the sustainable development of oilfields.
(3) Multidisciplinary Collaborative Research: The combination of artificial intelligence with other multidisciplinary research will facilitate the formation of a more comprehensive and integrated theory and technology system for water injection development.

Author Contributions

Formal analysis, B.W. and J.H.; investigation, Y.A. and X.L.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.A., B.W. and F.R.; writing—review and editing, F.R., T.F. and J.H.; funding acquisition, Y.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Technology Project of Liaohe Oilfield Company, grant number “2019KJ-18-02”.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The dataset is available on request from the authors.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our gratitude to Tiancheng Fang for his contributions to the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Dr. Yan An was employed by the LiaoHe Oilfield Company. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Problems faced by efficient development of full-scale water injection wells.
Figure 1. Problems faced by efficient development of full-scale water injection wells.
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Figure 2. Challenges faced in operational difficulty-scale injection wells: (a) sand-out; (b) mineralization; (c) casing deformation; (d) high temperature failure.
Figure 2. Challenges faced in operational difficulty-scale injection wells: (a) sand-out; (b) mineralization; (c) casing deformation; (d) high temperature failure.
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Figure 3. Annual bibliometric analysis of relevant literature from 2010 to 2024.
Figure 3. Annual bibliometric analysis of relevant literature from 2010 to 2024.
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Figure 4. Implementation of subdivision water injection development process.
Figure 4. Implementation of subdivision water injection development process.
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Figure 5. Subdivision water injection process under different well conditions.
Figure 5. Subdivision water injection process under different well conditions.
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Figure 6. Development history of layered water injection technology.
Figure 6. Development history of layered water injection technology.
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Figure 7. Schematic diagram of different intelligent layered injection technology structures [38]: (a) cable-based type; (b) non-contact type; (c) wireless type.
Figure 7. Schematic diagram of different intelligent layered injection technology structures [38]: (a) cable-based type; (b) non-contact type; (c) wireless type.
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Figure 8. Intelligent reservoir analysis and optimization system (IRES 3.0) [36].
Figure 8. Intelligent reservoir analysis and optimization system (IRES 3.0) [36].
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Figure 9. The intelligent injection device and its experimental setup [47]: (a) structural diagram of water distributor, and different arrows represent the flow process of water; (b) indoor experimental setup; (c) intelligent layered injection device.
Figure 9. The intelligent injection device and its experimental setup [47]: (a) structural diagram of water distributor, and different arrows represent the flow process of water; (b) indoor experimental setup; (c) intelligent layered injection device.
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Figure 10. The deep reinforcement learning method and its application effect [48]: (a) the deep learning method; (b) application effect analysis.
Figure 10. The deep reinforcement learning method and its application effect [48]: (a) the deep learning method; (b) application effect analysis.
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Figure 11. Schematic diagram of ball-pitching plugging profile control technology.
Figure 11. Schematic diagram of ball-pitching plugging profile control technology.
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Figure 12. Schematic diagram of the motion process of plugging balls, and the different colored balls here with the same characteristics: G p is the gravity, F f is the buoyancy, F z is the resistance, and u p and v p are the velocity in X and Y indirection.
Figure 12. Schematic diagram of the motion process of plugging balls, and the different colored balls here with the same characteristics: G p is the gravity, F f is the buoyancy, F z is the resistance, and u p and v p are the velocity in X and Y indirection.
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Figure 13. Avenues of research on ball-pitching plugging profile control technology [72,73,74]: (a) the plugging balls of different colors with different diameters and densities; (b) the plugging effect experiment and simulation; (c) the field experiment; (d) the effect analysis through pressure gauge.
Figure 13. Avenues of research on ball-pitching plugging profile control technology [72,73,74]: (a) the plugging balls of different colors with different diameters and densities; (b) the plugging effect experiment and simulation; (c) the field experiment; (d) the effect analysis through pressure gauge.
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Table 1. Applicable and restricted strata of subdivision water injection development methods.
Table 1. Applicable and restricted strata of subdivision water injection development methods.
Process MethodsApplicable StrataRestricted Strata
Eccentric layered water injection process [21]Multi-layered and heterogeneous oil reservoirsHigh temperature and high pressure formations, casing deformation, and sand producing formations
Concentric layered water injection process [7,21]Small spacing and small interlayer reservoirsHigh temperature and high pressure formations, casing deformation, and sand producing formations
Intelligent subdivision process [22]Complex and unconventional reservoirsHigh temperature and high pressure formations, casing deformation, and sand producing formations
Fine chemical profile control process [23,24,25,26,27]Heterogeneous and water flooding late stage reservoirLow permeability, fault, high temperature and high pressure formations
Horizontal well subdivision process [28]Thin layer, heterogeneous, longitudinally fractured reservoirHigh temperature and high pressure formations, faults, and deep well formations
Table 2. Fine chemical profile control processes.
Table 2. Fine chemical profile control processes.
Profile Control TypeMaterialTechnical AdvantagesApplication Situation
Chemical profile control technology [29,30]PolyacrylamideSmall effect on the oil reservoirPoor sealing effect of high permeability layer
Cement sodium rosinateSimple constructionHarmful to the oil reservoir
Composite ion plugging agentSuitable for complex geological formationsSuitable for deep displacement control
Chromium acetate weak gelGood oil displacement effectLimited application scope
Blocking and profile control technology [31,32]Polyacrylamide gelSuitable for deep displacement controlSuitable for deep displacement control
Pre-crosslinked expanded particlesSuitable for specific reservoir conditionsImprove reservoir fluidity
MicrospheresCapable of achieving deep fluid flow diversionHigh oil displacement efficiency
Table 3. Comparative analysis of three intelligent layered injection technologies [38].
Table 3. Comparative analysis of three intelligent layered injection technologies [38].
TypesCharacteristicsAdvantagesDisadvantages
Cable-based intelligent injection technologyUsing cables to achieve signal transmission between water distributors and control platformsStable data transmission and strong real-time performanceDamage-prone cables, high maintenance costs, and large construction difficulties
Non-contact intelligent injection technologyUtilizing non-contact sensors and wireless communication technology to achieve data transmissionNo need for cable connection, reducing the risk of cable failure; stable and reliable data transmission; low maintenance costHigh requirements for wireless communication technology; affected by complex electromagnetic environment interference
Wireless intelligent injection technologyRelying on built-in battery power and wireless communication technology to achieve data transmissionConvenient construction, low maintenance cost, and flexible water injection operationLimited battery life; stability of communication systems under extreme conditions
Table 4. Characteristic analysis of three types of profile control balls [68,69].
Table 4. Characteristic analysis of three types of profile control balls [68,69].
CharacteristicDeformable BallInner Hard + Outer Rubber BallIntegral Hard Ball
MaterialDeformable materialOuter layer deformationHard solid material
TightnessWell-plugging effectAffected by rubber layerDiameter difference and smoothness
AbradabilityAgingOuter layer wearAffected by chemical media
ReversibilityLowHighHigh
Cost benefitFrequent replacementGood comprehensive benefitsHigh long-term benefits
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Ren, F.; Hu, J.; An, Y.; Liu, X.; Wang, B.; Fang, T. Research Progress on Subdivision Water Injection Development Technology for Full-Scale Water Injection Wells. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 9492. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179492

AMA Style

Ren F, Hu J, An Y, Liu X, Wang B, Fang T. Research Progress on Subdivision Water Injection Development Technology for Full-Scale Water Injection Wells. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(17):9492. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179492

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ren, Fushen, Jinzhao Hu, Yan An, Xiaolong Liu, Baojin Wang, and Tiancheng Fang. 2025. "Research Progress on Subdivision Water Injection Development Technology for Full-Scale Water Injection Wells" Applied Sciences 15, no. 17: 9492. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179492

APA Style

Ren, F., Hu, J., An, Y., Liu, X., Wang, B., & Fang, T. (2025). Research Progress on Subdivision Water Injection Development Technology for Full-Scale Water Injection Wells. Applied Sciences, 15(17), 9492. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179492

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