Affect-Driven Attention Biases as Animal Welfare Indicators: Review and Methods
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Literature Review: Methods
3. Literature Review: Results and Discussion
3.1. Looking Time Tasks
3.2. Emotional Stroop Tasks
3.3. Dot-Probe Tasks
3.4. Emotional Spatial Cueing Tasks
3.5. Visual Search Tasks
3.6. Related Paradigms
4. Outstanding Questions and Future Directions
4.1. Other Sensory Modalities
4.2. Effect Specificity
4.3. Attentional Scope
4.4. Attention Bias Modification
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Term | Definition |
---|---|
Affect | Umbrella term for all valenced experiences, including moods, emotions, and feelings. |
Affect-driven attention bias (ADAB) | An attention bias towards or away from emotional information that is influenced by the observer’s affective state. Often labelled “attention bias” in the animal welfare literature. |
Affective state | A temporary affect, e.g., emotions or moods. |
Attention | The selective allocation of cognitive resources to particular information. |
Attention bias | The preferential allocation of attentional resources towards one form of information over another. |
Attention bias task (ABT) | An experimental paradigm that presents subjects with stimuli and records how their attention is allocated. Examples covered here include looking time, emotional Stroop, dot-probe, emotional spatial cueing, and visual search tasks. |
Attention to emotion | Attention allocated towards emotional stimuli. |
Attention to threat | Attention allocated towards threatening stimuli. |
Avoidance of threat | Attention allocated away from threatening stimuli. |
Cognition | The mechanisms, such as attention and judgement, that animals use to gather, process, and store information. |
Cognitive bias | In the animal welfare literature, an umbrella term for cognitive processes influenced by affect, e.g., attention and judgement biases. |
Disengagement (of attention) | The allocation of attention away from a stimulus previously attended to. |
Emotion | Stimulus-directed affective state. Consists of behavioural, physiological, and cognitive components, and may occur outside awareness (cf. “Feeling”). |
Engagement (of attention) | The initial allocation of attention towards a stimulus. Limited attentional resources mean engagement to one stimulus may draw resources away from other tasks. |
Feeling | Subjective, experiential element of affect. Because animals’ feelings cannot be reported directly, we rely on indirect indicators that can be objectively measured, e.g., behaviour, physiology, and cognitive biases. |
Judgement Bias | A cognitive bias where affect influences judgements about the affective value of ambiguous stimuli. Positive affect is associated with optimistic judgements; negative affect is associated with pessimistic judgements. |
Judgement bias task (JBT) | A task that uses judgements of ambiguous stimuli as an indicator of affect. Typically, subjects are trained to react differently to two stimuli to achieve relatively positive- and negative-valence outcomes. Responses to subsequent presentations of intermediate “probe” stimuli indicate whether subjects judge them more positively (optimistic responses) or negatively (pessimistic responses). |
Mood | A long-lasting affective state that reflects the cumulative impact of emotion over preceding days, weeks or months. |
Motivation | Drives arising from internal signals that compel behaviour to meet basic biological needs, e.g., hunger and thirst. |
Overt attention | A measurable proxy for attention, such as movements of the eye with respect to stimuli. |
Personality | Behavioural and psychological traits with inter-individual variation but intra-individual consistency across time and contexts. |
Trait affect | Affect stable within individuals over time. A personality trait that does not encompass transient emotions or moods. |
Vigilance | Scanning the environment for potential threats (may occur in the absence of threatening stimuli). |
Species | Ref. | N | Stimuli | Measure/Manipulation of Affect | Measure of Attention | Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Starling | [38] | 32 | Eyespots, ambiguous eyespots, ctrls | NV: predator call, alarm call, white noise | Orienting towards stimuli | No effect |
Sheep | [39] | 41 | Empty food bucket | NV: food-deprivation | Detection/approach latency, object interaction | No effect for detection/approach latency; NV sheep interacted longer |
[40] | 29 | Aggressive, affiliative, and non-social behaviours (video) | NV: unpredictable, unenriched housing; PV: predictable, enriched housing | Orienting towards stimuli | Time oriented towards stimuli (all subjects): aggressive > neutral > affiliative. NV: oriented towards stimuli longer overall | |
Dual-Presentation Looking Time Task | ||||||
Rhesus macaque | [26] | 7 | Aggressive/neutral faces | NV: post-vet health-check; PV: enrichment | Eye gaze | All monkeys initially oriented faster towards aggressive faces; NV monkeys disengaged faster from aggressive faces |
Starling | [27] | 14 | Alarm call/food | NV: no water bath | Head up/down duration | NV birds longer head-up bout and shorter head-down bout duration |
Sheep | [41] | 60 | Dog/food | NV: anxiogenic; PV: anxiolytic | Looking time, head up duration, latency to eat | Looking duration/head up/latency to eat: NV > ctrl > PV |
[42] | 60 | Dog/food | NV: anxiogenic; PV: anxiolytic | Looking time, head up duration, latency to eat | Looking duration/head up/latency to eat: NV > ctrl > PV | |
Cattle | [43] | 36 | Dog/food | NV: anxiogenic; PV: anxiolytic | Looking time, head up duration, latency to eat | NV looking duration/head up/latency to feed > ctrl; no effect for PV |
Emotional Stroop Task | ||||||
Chimpanzee | [44] | 7 | Vet (negative-valence) and other humans | NV: post-vet health-check | Colour discrimination task RTs | All subjects: RTs slower to touch correct colour when it contained image of the vet than non-threatening humans. NV subjects: slower than ctrls to touch the correct colour when it contained image of the vet |
Orange-winged amazon | [45] | 20 | Human | Subjective personality assessment | Spatial memory task RTs | Negative correlation between neuroticisim ratings and task performance (suggests greater distraction from human present) |
Visual Search Task | ||||||
Guinea baboon | [46] | 6 | T-/L-shapes (conditioned valence) | NV and PV behaviours (observational) | RT to the target | RT: NV > ctrl > PV |
Dual-Presentation Judgement Bias Task | ||||||
Brown rat | [47] | 16 | Tones (conditioned valence) | NV: unpredictable housing | Lever pressed (binary) and RT to lever press | Ambiguous-probe and dual-presentation JBT congruent: NV rats pressed positive lever (optimistic responses) more than ctrls. Suggests AB towards negative-valence stimulus |
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Crump, A.; Arnott, G.; Bethell, E.J. Affect-Driven Attention Biases as Animal Welfare Indicators: Review and Methods. Animals 2018, 8, 136. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani8080136
Crump A, Arnott G, Bethell EJ. Affect-Driven Attention Biases as Animal Welfare Indicators: Review and Methods. Animals. 2018; 8(8):136. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani8080136
Chicago/Turabian StyleCrump, Andrew, Gareth Arnott, and Emily J. Bethell. 2018. "Affect-Driven Attention Biases as Animal Welfare Indicators: Review and Methods" Animals 8, no. 8: 136. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani8080136