Figure 1.
Implanted electronic interface board (EIB) microchip with metal hooks on either side to secure the logging device with rubber bands.
Figure 1.
Implanted electronic interface board (EIB) microchip with metal hooks on either side to secure the logging device with rubber bands.
Figure 2.
Camera framing displaying an overhead view of the pen with the bird perching for recording during lights-off. The positioning of cameras on either side of the perch is indicated in red.
Figure 2.
Camera framing displaying an overhead view of the pen with the bird perching for recording during lights-off. The positioning of cameras on either side of the perch is indicated in red.
Figure 3.
Effects during lights-off by period (undisturbed, disturbed, recovery) and treatments within disturbed periods (‘feed’ = feed deprivation, ‘foot’ = footpad pain, ‘temp’ = increased ambient temperature) on proportions of states (wakefulness (WAKE), slow-wave sleep (SWS) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep). Values are back-transformed means ± SEs estimated from LMMs fitted to angular transformed proportions, with the fixed effects of time interval, treatment (five levels), and the interaction between them.
Figure 3.
Effects during lights-off by period (undisturbed, disturbed, recovery) and treatments within disturbed periods (‘feed’ = feed deprivation, ‘foot’ = footpad pain, ‘temp’ = increased ambient temperature) on proportions of states (wakefulness (WAKE), slow-wave sleep (SWS) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep). Values are back-transformed means ± SEs estimated from LMMs fitted to angular transformed proportions, with the fixed effects of time interval, treatment (five levels), and the interaction between them.
Figure 4.
Effects during lights-off of treatment adjusted for period on proportions of states: (a) wakefulness (WAKE), (b) slow-wave sleep (SWS) and (c) rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Values are back-transformed means ± SEs estimated from LMMs fitted to angular transformed proportions with the fixed effects of time interval, treatment (five levels), and the interaction between them.
Figure 4.
Effects during lights-off of treatment adjusted for period on proportions of states: (a) wakefulness (WAKE), (b) slow-wave sleep (SWS) and (c) rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Values are back-transformed means ± SEs estimated from LMMs fitted to angular transformed proportions with the fixed effects of time interval, treatment (five levels), and the interaction between them.
Figure 5.
Effects during lights-on by period (disturbed, recovery) and treatment within the disturbed period (‘feed’ = feed deprivation, ‘foot’ = footpad pain, ‘temp’ = increased ambient temperature) on the proportions of states (wakefulness (WAKE), slow-wave sleep (SWS) and resting). Values are back-transformed means ± SEs estimated from LMMs fitted to angular transformed proportions with the fixed effects of time interval, treatment (five levels), and the interaction between them.
Figure 5.
Effects during lights-on by period (disturbed, recovery) and treatment within the disturbed period (‘feed’ = feed deprivation, ‘foot’ = footpad pain, ‘temp’ = increased ambient temperature) on the proportions of states (wakefulness (WAKE), slow-wave sleep (SWS) and resting). Values are back-transformed means ± SEs estimated from LMMs fitted to angular transformed proportions with the fixed effects of time interval, treatment (five levels), and the interaction between them.
Figure 6.
Effects during lights-on of treatment adjusted for period on proportions of states: (a) wakefulness (WAKE), (b) slow-wave sleep (SWS) and (c) resting. Values are back-transformed means ± SEs estimated from LMMs fitted to angular transformed proportions with the fixed effects of time interval, treatment (five levels), and the interaction between them.
Figure 6.
Effects during lights-on of treatment adjusted for period on proportions of states: (a) wakefulness (WAKE), (b) slow-wave sleep (SWS) and (c) resting. Values are back-transformed means ± SEs estimated from LMMs fitted to angular transformed proportions with the fixed effects of time interval, treatment (five levels), and the interaction between them.
Table 1.
Experimental and companion bird allocation according to their ID numbers and batch. Experimental birds E5 and E6 were culled prior to the start of this study due to health concerns.
Table 1.
Experimental and companion bird allocation according to their ID numbers and batch. Experimental birds E5 and E6 were culled prior to the start of this study due to health concerns.
Batch | Companion Bird ID Numbers | Experimental Bird ID Numbers |
---|
1 | C1, C2 | E1, E2, E3 |
2 | C3, C4 | E4, |
3 | C3, C4 | E7, E8, E9 |
4 | C5, C6 | E10, E11, E12 |
Table 2.
Experiment diary for batches 1–4. Study 1 refers to Putyora et al. [
34]. Birds experienced a different type of period per day (recorded over 23 h): undisturbed, disturbed, or recovery. Disturbances were applied at 09:30 on a disturbed recording day and continued until 08:30 the following day. There were three disturbance treatments, and each bird experienced each treatment once.
Table 2.
Experiment diary for batches 1–4. Study 1 refers to Putyora et al. [
34]. Birds experienced a different type of period per day (recorded over 23 h): undisturbed, disturbed, or recovery. Disturbances were applied at 09:30 on a disturbed recording day and continued until 08:30 the following day. There were three disturbance treatments, and each bird experienced each treatment once.
Day | Batch 1 and 4 | Batch 2 and 3 |
---|
Day −21 | Surgery | Surgery |
Day −20–0 | Study 1 | Study 1 |
Day 1 | Undisturbed sleep recording | Disturbed sleep recording (feed deprivation) |
Day 2 | Disturbed sleep recording (increased ambient temperature) | Recovery sleep recording |
Day 3 | Recovery sleep recording | Disturbed sleep recording (increased ambient temperature) |
Day 4 | Disturbed sleep recording (feed deprivation) | Recovery sleep recording |
Day 5 | Recovery sleep recording | Disturbed sleep recording (footpad pain) |
Day 6 | Disturbed sleep recording (footpad pain) | Recovery sleep recording |
Day 7 | Equipment switched off | Equipment switched off |
Table 3.
Ethogram of sleep behaviour assessment criteria and corresponding electroencephalograph (EEG) patterns.
Table 3.
Ethogram of sleep behaviour assessment criteria and corresponding electroencephalograph (EEG) patterns.
Video | EEG | Definition |
---|
Awake | Waking EEG (low-amplitude high-frequency waves) | Bird is clearly awake and engaged in activity, including walking, preening, nest building, laying, feeding, drinking, foraging, panting and standing on one leg. |
Resting | Waking EEG (low-amplitude high-frequency waves) | Minor and infrequent head movements while in a stereotypic sleep posture (sitting with wings folded or head retracted into the breast), and not engaged in any active behaviours. One or both eyes may be closed with occasional opening. EEG is the same as awake EEG. |
Sleep | Slow-wave sleep (SWS) EEG (high-amplitude low-frequency waves) | Bird is in a stereotypic sleep posture (sitting or perching with wings folded and head retracted) with one or both eyes closed. EEG has transitioned from waking/resting to SWS. |
Sleep | Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep EEG (low-amplitude high-frequency waves—must be preceded by SWS) | Bird is in a stereotypic REM sleep posture (sitting or perching with wings relaxed and head hanging downwards) with both eyes closed. EEG has transitioned from SWS to REM sleep. |
Table 4.
F tests for the effects of time interval (‘Time’, time of day divided into 2 h blocks), period (disturbed, recovery, undisturbed), treatment (feed deprivation, increased ambient temperature, footpad pain) adjusted for period and their interactions (Time × Period and Time × Treatment) on wakefulness, slow-wave sleep (SWS) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep during lights-off periods from LMMs. F values, with numerator and denominator degrees of freedom (ndf, ddf, respectively), are shown.
Table 4.
F tests for the effects of time interval (‘Time’, time of day divided into 2 h blocks), period (disturbed, recovery, undisturbed), treatment (feed deprivation, increased ambient temperature, footpad pain) adjusted for period and their interactions (Time × Period and Time × Treatment) on wakefulness, slow-wave sleep (SWS) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep during lights-off periods from LMMs. F values, with numerator and denominator degrees of freedom (ndf, ddf, respectively), are shown.
| Wakefulness | SWS | REM |
---|
| Time | Period | Treatment | Time × Period | Time × Treatment | Time | Period | Treatment | Time × Period | Time × Treatment | Time | Period | Treatment | Time × Period | Time × Treatment |
---|
ndf,ddf | 4,210 | 2,19 | 2,17 | 8,209 | 8,209 | 4,212 | 2,18 | 2,16 | 8,211 | 8,211 | 4,209 | 2,17 | 2,15 | 8,208 | 8,208 |
F value | 23.2 | 7.6 | 9.2 | 0.6 | 1.6 | 28.8 | 4.1 | 5.3 | 1.0 | 1.5 | 7.2 | 16.7 | 20.5 | 0.4 | 1.8 |
p value | <0.001 | 0.004 | 0.002 | 0.768 | 0.127 | <0.001 | 0.035 | 0.017 | 0.475 | 0.177 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.915 | 0.070 |
Table 5.
Effects of time interval during lights-off on proportions of states (wakefulness, slow-wave sleep (SWS) and rapid eye movement sleep (REM)). Values are back-transformed means, with back-transformed mean—SE and back-transformed mean + SE forming the lower and upper bounds, respectively, estimated from LMMs fitted to angular transformed proportions with the fixed effects of time interval, treatment (five levels), and the interaction between them. Where superscripts (a,b) are different within a column, means are significantly different (p < 0.05) (obtained through post hoc Tukey’s HSD tests).
Table 5.
Effects of time interval during lights-off on proportions of states (wakefulness, slow-wave sleep (SWS) and rapid eye movement sleep (REM)). Values are back-transformed means, with back-transformed mean—SE and back-transformed mean + SE forming the lower and upper bounds, respectively, estimated from LMMs fitted to angular transformed proportions with the fixed effects of time interval, treatment (five levels), and the interaction between them. Where superscripts (a,b) are different within a column, means are significantly different (p < 0.05) (obtained through post hoc Tukey’s HSD tests).
| Wakefulness | SWS | REM |
---|
| Proportion | Lower Bound | Upper Bound | Proportion | Lower Bound | Upper Bound | Proportion | Lower Bound | Upper Bound |
---|
19:00–21:00 | 0.26 b | 0.22 | 0.31 | 0.65 a | 0.61 | 0.69 | 0.08 b | 0.05 | 0.10 |
21:00–23:00 | 0.18 b | 0.15 | 0.22 | 0.68 a | 0.64 | 0.72 | 0.10 b | 0.08 | 0.13 |
23:00–01:00 | 0.24 b | 0.20 | 0.28 | 0.61 a | 0.57 | 0.64 | 0.12 a | 0.10 | 0.15 |
01:00–03:00 | 0.22 b | 0.18 | 0.26 | 0.62 a | 0.58 | 0.66 | 0.14 a | 0.11 | 0.17 |
03:00–05:00 | 0.39 a | 0.35 | 0.44 | 0.48 b | 0.44 | 0.52 | 0.11 b | 0.08 | 0.13 |
Table 6.
F tests for effects of time interval (‘Time’, time of day divided into 3.5 h blocks), period (disturbed, recovery), treatment (feed deprivation, increased ambient temperature and footpad pain) adjusted for period, and their interactions (Time × Period and Time × Treatment) on wakefulness, slow-wave sleep (SWS) and resting during lights-on from LMMs. F values, with numerator and denominator degrees of freedom (ndf, ddf, respectively), are shown.
Table 6.
F tests for effects of time interval (‘Time’, time of day divided into 3.5 h blocks), period (disturbed, recovery), treatment (feed deprivation, increased ambient temperature and footpad pain) adjusted for period, and their interactions (Time × Period and Time × Treatment) on wakefulness, slow-wave sleep (SWS) and resting during lights-on from LMMs. F values, with numerator and denominator degrees of freedom (ndf, ddf, respectively), are shown.
| Wakefulness | SWS | Resting |
---|
| Time | Period | Treatment | Time × Period | Time × Treatment | Time | Period | Treatment | Time × Period | Time × Treatment | Time | Period | Treatment | Time × Period | Time × Treatment |
---|
ndf,ddf | 2,42 | 1,42 | 2,42 | 2,42 | 4,42 | 2,31 | 1,42 | 2,38 | 2,27 | 4,38 | 2,39 | 1,40 | 2,39 | 2,40 | 4,40 |
F value | 5.7 | 0.8 | 9.6 | 0.1 | 2.3 | 7.1 | 0.1 | 13.7 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 3.9 | 0.9 | 5.5 | 0.3 | 2.3 |
p value | 0.007 | 0.385 | <0.001 | 0.929 | 0.071 | 0.003 | 0.786 | <0.001 | 0.540 | 0.586 | 0.028 | 0.336 | 0.008 | 0.777 | 0.075 |
Table 7.
Effects during lights-on of time interval on proportions of states (wakefulness, slow-wave sleep (SWS) and resting). Values are back-transformed means, with back-transformed mean—SE and back-transformed mean + SE forming the lower and upper bounds, respectively, estimated from LMMs fitted to angular transformed proportions with the fixed effects of time interval, treatment (five levels), and the interaction between them. Where superscripts (a,b) are different within a column, means are significantly different (p < 0.05) (obtained through post hoc Tukey’s HSD tests).
Table 7.
Effects during lights-on of time interval on proportions of states (wakefulness, slow-wave sleep (SWS) and resting). Values are back-transformed means, with back-transformed mean—SE and back-transformed mean + SE forming the lower and upper bounds, respectively, estimated from LMMs fitted to angular transformed proportions with the fixed effects of time interval, treatment (five levels), and the interaction between them. Where superscripts (a,b) are different within a column, means are significantly different (p < 0.05) (obtained through post hoc Tukey’s HSD tests).
| Wakefulness | SWS | Resting |
---|
| Proportion | Lower Bound | Upper Bound | Proportion | Lower Bound | Upper Bound | Proportion | Lower Bound | Upper Bound |
---|
12:00–15:30 | 0.83 a | 0.81 | 0.86 | 0.03 b | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.13 a | 0.11 | 0.15 |
15:30–19:00 | 0.89 a | 0.86 | 0.91 | 0.01 a | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.10 a | 0.08 | 0.14 |
05:00–08:30 | 0.83 a | 0.81 | 0.85 | 0.01 a | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.14 a | 0.12 | 0.17 |