Natural Products for the Treatment of Chlamydiaceae Infections
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Overview of Chlamydiaceae
2.1. Brief History
2.2. Chlamydiaceae Infections and Treatment
3. Biomedical Phytochemical Groups and Anti-Infective Action
3.1. Polyphenolic Compounds
3.2. Lipidic Compounds
3.3. Proteinaceous Compounds
3.4. Cellular Metabolites & Probiotics
3.5. Polyherbal Formulations
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Chlamydial Species | Standard Treatments | In Vitro and/or Natural Antibiotic Resistance [13] | Asymptomatic Persistence in Host [27] | Infected Tissues [27] |
---|---|---|---|---|
C. trachomatis | Humans [5] Doxycycline (TET) or azithromycin (MAC). Erythromycin ethyl-succinate (MAC), levofloxacin (FLQ), or ofloxacin (FLQ) are alternatives. Azithromycin (MAC) with amoxicillin (β-lac) or erythromycin (MAC) advised for pregnant women. | MAC, TET, β-lac, RIF, FLQ, SUL, TRI, LIN, AMI, FOS. | + | Eye, genital, joints, prostate, neonatal lung. |
C. suis | Livestock (Swine) [12] NOTE: The following antibiotic treatments were unable to clear chlamydial infections on a herd level. Therapeutic treatment: aminoglycoside (AMI); β-lactam antibiotic (β-lac); cephalosporin (β-lac); fluoroquinolone (FLQ); or tetracycline (TET). Pro-/metaphylactic herd treatment: amoxicillin (β-lac); chlortetracycline (TET); MDT—chlortetracycline (TET), sulfadimidine (SUL), tylosin (MAC); or MDT—trimethoprim (DRI), sulfadimidine (SUL), sulfathiazole (SUL). | TET, β-lac, RIF, FLQ, SUL. | + | Eye, intestine, lung. |
C. muridarum | Mice [36] Doxycycline (TET) or azithromycin (MAC). | TET, β-lac, RIF, FLQ. | + | Genital, intestine, liver, lung, kidney, spleen. |
C. psittaci | Birds & Humans [9,31] Tetracyclines (TET) or macrolides (MAC). Erythromycin (MAC) is advised for children and pregnant women. Livestock (Cattle) [6,32] No evidence pointing to the successful use of antimicrobials to eliminate bovine chlamydial infection. | MAC, β-lac, RIF, SUL, TRI, AMI. | + | Brain, eye, genital, intestine, liver, lung, spleen. |
C. pneumonia | Humans [5] Doxycycline (TET) or azithromycin (MAC). Clarithromycin (MAC), levofloxacin (FLQ), or moxifloxacin (FLQ) are alternatives. Azithromycin (MAC), clarithromycin (MAC), or erythromycin (MAC) is advised for children and pregnant women. 70%–86% efficacy with erythromycin (MAC), clarithromycin (MAC), azithromycin (MAC), levofloxacin (FLQ), or moxifloxacin (FLQ). | β-lac, RIF, FLQ, SUL. | + | Arteries, brain, joints, lung. |
C. abortus | Humans [33] Responds well to early treatment with tetracyclines (TET) and erythromycin (MAC). Livestock (Ruminants) [9,10] Oxytetracycline (TET) will reduce the number of abortions and bacterial shedding. Antibiotics are ineffective in clearing the infection. | − | + | Intestine, placenta, spleen, fetal liver. |
C. pecorum | Livestock (Cattle) [32] No evidence pointing to the successful use of antimicrobials to eliminate bovine chlamydial infection. Marsupials (Koalas) [34,35] Chloramphenicol (CHL) or enrofloxacin (FLQ) produce mixed results. Macrolides (MAC) and tetracyclines (TET) induce inappetence, emaciation, and death in koalas. | − | + | Bladder, brain, eye, intestine, lymph, joints, prostate. |
C. felis | Cats [37] Doxycycline (TET) and topical tetracycline (TET). MDT: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (β-lac) may be a safe alternative for kittens. | − | − | Eye, genital, joints, lung. |
C. caviae | Guinea Pigs [38] Doxycycline (TET) or azithromycin (MAC). | β-lac, RIF, FLQ, SUL. | − | Bladder, eye, genital, lung. |
C. avium | Birds Tetracyclines (TET) or macrolides (MAC)—based on treatment for C. psittaci. | − | + | − |
C. gallinacea | Birds Tetracyclines (TET) or macrolides (MAC)—based on treatment for C. psittaci. | − | + | − |
Antimicrobial Agent | Chlamydial Species | Study Design | Effects | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Flavones (×8), Flavonols (×8), Flavonones (×2), Isoflavones (×4), Synthetic flavonoids (×4), Natural coumarins (×5), Synthetic courmarins (×10), Catechins (×5), Phenolic acids (×5), Gallates (×5), Stilbene (×1) | C. pneumoniae (K7) | In vitro Pre-inoculation: incubated with cells for 24 h prior to EB inoculation. Post-inoculation: administered at 0 h post inoculation (p.i.). | From 57 compounds, at 50 μM: 21 were highly active, 16 active, 6 moderately active, and 14 inactive. 10 compounds achieved an MIC of 50 μM or less with luteolin being 8.8 μM and dodecyl gallate being 18 μM. Gallates was the most active group. Some compounds accumulated inside cells or in cell membranes and cause inhibition when present only prior to infection. Compound structural variations, either free from sugar moieties, or with greater hydrophobicity, were found to be more active. All compounds were non-toxic to the host cells. | [43] |
Polyphenon 70S: Epigallocatechin (18.3%), Epicatechin (8.6%), Epigallocatechin gallate (35.9%), Epicatechin gallate (11.2%), Gallocatechin gallate (3.5%) | C. trachomatis (D), (L2) C. Pneumoniae (AR-39), (AC-43) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 30, 60, or 90 min prior to inoculation. Post-inoculation: administered at 0 h p.i. | Polyphenon 70S, post-incubation, 100% inhibition of chlamydial inclusions, at 0.5 mg/mL, with toxicity to host cells at 0.25 mg/mL. Pre-incubation, 100% inhibition, at 0.4–1.6 mg/mL, with no toxicity to host cells. | [47] |
Catechin, Epicatechin, Epigallocatechin, Epicatechin gallate, Epigallocatechin gallate | C. pneumoniae (AR-39) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 90 min prior to inoculation. | Inhibition was observed for concentrations from 0.4 to >6.4 mg/mL. Most active compounds were epigallocatechin gallate and epicatechin gallate, followed by epicatechin. Catechin and epigallocatechin exhibited intermediate activity. Epicatechin was the least toxic. | [48] |
Luteolin, Octyl gallate, Quercetin | C. pneumoniae (K7) | In vivo Pre- & Post-inoculation: administered daily for 3 days prior to inoculation; administered daily for 12 days p.i. (mice) | Luteolin suppressed inflammation in lung tissue, C. pneumoniae-specific antibodies, and the presence of chlamydia in lung tissue. Octyl gallate had no significant effect on infection. Quercetin increased the inflammatory responses and the chlamydial load in the lungs. | [49] |
Baicalin | C. trachomatis (D) | In vitro Post-inoculation: administered at 24 h p.i. | Blocks the infection of Hep-2 cells. Down-regulates the production of the chlamydia-secreted protein (CPAF). CPAF degradation of host transcription factors RFX5 may allow chlamydia to escape efficient immune detection. Baicalin may assist the host immune system to detect the chlamydial infection. | [51] |
Betulin, Betulin derivatives (×32) | C. pneumoniae (CWL-029) | In vitro Post-inoculation: administered at 0 h p.i. | At a concentration of 1 μM, three derivatives showed >80% growth inhibition, and 15 compounds 20%–80% growth inhibition. Betulin dioxime exhibited an MIC of 1 μM, and achieved 50% inhibition at 290 nM. Compounds were well tolerated by host cells. | [52] |
Corn mint extract (Mentha arvensis): Rosmarinic acid (5.2%), Linarin (6.0%), Acacetin-acetylglucoside-rhamnoglycoside (2.5%) Pure compounds: Rosmarinic acid, Linarin, Acacetin | C. pneumoniae (CWL-029), (K7) | In vitro Post-inoculation: administered at 0 h p.i. In vivo Pre- & Post-inoculation: administered daily for 3 days prior to inoculation; administered daily for 10 days p.i. (mice) | For corn mint extract, at 256 μg/mL, 73% inhibition of chlamydial inclusions was achieved for strain CWL-029, and 90% for strain K7, with ~78% host cell viability. Pure compound, inhibition at 100 μg/mL for strain CWL-029: linarin 100%, acacetin 97%, and rosmarinic acid 73%, with ~99% host cell viability. Pure compound, inhibition at 100 μg/mL for strain K7: linarin 62%, acacetin 81%, and rosmarinic acid 74%. In vivo, corn mint extract in nutritionally relevant dosages resulted in reduced inflammatory responses to chlamydial infection. | [53] |
Peppermint tea extracts (Mentha × piperita L.): Eriocitrin, 12-Hydroxyjasmonate sulfate, Luteolin-O-rutinoside, Rosmarinic acid, Salvianolic acid B, Trace polyphenols, Trace plant acids | C. pneumoniae (K7) | In vitro Post-inoculation: administered at 0 h p.i. | Seven tea extracts were shown to be active against C. pneumoniae. At 250 μg/mL, from 20.7% to 69.5% inhibition. Higher content of luteolin and apigenin glycosides showed high activity. Host cell viability after the 72 h exposure to tea extracts ranged from 82.4% to 99.4%. | [54] |
Isoflavones: Biochanin A, Formononetin, Genistein, Daidzein, Genistin, Daidzin | C. trachomatis (K), (L2) C. Pneumoniae (K7) | In vitro Post-inoculation: administered at 0 h p.i. | Biochanin A at 50 μM, complete inhibition of C. pneumoniae. Biochanin A, IC50: C. trachomatis—62 μM; C. pneumoniae—12 μM. No harmful effects on host cell viability. Biochanin A methylated hydroxyl group provides improved the antichlamydial activity. Biochanin A does not affect C. pneumoniae in its extracellular (EB) form. Oromucosal buccal dosage forms improve dissolution of biochanin A and allow for permeation of porcine buccal tissue. | [55] |
Polyphenols: Quercetin, Luteolin, Rhamnetin, Octyl gallate Coadministrants: Doxycycline, Verapamil (Ca2+), Isradipine (Ca2+), Thapsigargin (Ca2+) | C. pneumoniae (CWL-029) | In vitro Post-inoculation: administered at 0 h p.i. | Quercetin, luteolin, rhamnetin and octyl gallate did not improve the antichlamydial effect of doxycycline. Some coadministration combinations of Ca2+ modulators with phenolic compounds resulted in potentiation of the antichlamydial effect of phenolic compounds. More antagonistic combinations were found than synergic or additive combinations. | [56] |
Polyphenols: Resveratrol, Quercetin Coadministrants: Clarithromycin, Ofloxacin | C. pneumoniae (CWL-029) | In vitro Pre-inoculation: incubated with cells for 24 h prior to inoculation. | Resveratrol at 40 μM and quercetin at 20 μM exhibited significant growth inhibition in presence of clarithromycin or ofloxacin compared to controls. Immunomodulatory effects via strong inhibition of the IL-23 levels with coadministration of resveratrol or quercetin and ofloxacin or clarithromycin. | [57] |
Antimicrobial Agent | Chlamydial Species | Study Design | Effects | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Caprylic acid, Capric acid, Lauric acid, Myristic acid, Palmitoleic acid, Oleic acid, 1-monoglyceride of each fatty acid | C. trachomatis (K) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 1, 5, 10, or 120 min prior to inoculation. | Lauric acid, capric acid, and monocaprin caused >10,000-fold reduction in the infectivity titer. Monocaprin was the most active, with >100,000-fold inactivation of C. trachomatis at a concentration of 5 mM for 5 min. Results indicate that bacteria are killed by disrupting membranes of chlamydial elementary bodies. | [60] |
1-O-octyl-, 2-O-octyl-, 1-O-heptyl-, 1-O-hexyl-, 2-O-hexyl-sn-glycerol | C. trachomatis (D), (F) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 0, 30, 60, 90, or 120 min prior to inoculation. | 2-O-octyl-sn-glycerol, at 7.5 mM, completely prevented growth of C. trachomatis after 120 min of contact with the organism. The lipids were shown to have disrupted the chlamydial inner membrane, allowing leakage of the cytoplasmic contents from the cell. | [62] |
Lipidic compound: 3-O-octyl-sn-glycerol Coadministrant: Antimicrobial peptide (WLBU2) | C. trachomatis (D), (E), (L2) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 5 or 120 min prior to inoculation. | 3-O-octyl-sn-glycerol, at 6.25 mM, was 100% inhibitory after 5 min of exposure. Coadministration with WLBU2 produces significantly increased activity. 3-O-octyl-sn-glycerol could be used at up to 30 mM without causing toxicity. | [63] |
Hinokitiol | C. trachomatis (D) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 1 h prior to inoculation. Post-inoculation: administered at 0 h p.i. | Hinokitiol, was shown to have an MIC and minimum lethal concentration (MLC) of 32 μg/mL. High concentrations of hinokitiol have been shown to be cytotoxic. | [64] |
Antimicrobial Agent | Chlamydial Species | Study Design | Effects | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aqueous protein extract from mycorrhizal fungi (Terfezia claveryi) | C. trachomatis | In vivo Clinical treatment: administered to infected patients. (humans) | Sterilized aqueous T. claveryi extracts of were found to be effective, although slower acting than conventional antibiotic treatment. Partially purified proteins extracted from the aqueous T. claveryi extract were more effective. | [65] |
Peptides: Human defensin HNP-2, Porcine protegrin PG-1 | C. trachomatis (D), (H1), (L2) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 2 h prior to inoculation. | Both HNP-2 and PG-1 inhibited chlamydial infection, but HNP-2 was the most potent. PG-1-treated EBs exhibited morphological changes, membrane damage, and loss of cytoplasmic contents. | [66] |
Peptide: Melittin | C. trachomatis (E) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 24 h prior to inoculation. | C. trachomatis inhibition after the introduction of recombinant plasmid vectors expressing the melittin gene. Main mechanism is its direct cytotoxic effect. Secondary mechanism is lowering the transmembrane potential of a transfected cell, which disturbs chlamydial adhesion to the cell. | [67] |
Peptide: Melittin | C. trachomatis (D) | In vivo Pre- & Post-inoculation: administered 1 day prior to inoculation; administered at 14 days p.i. | Vaginal administration and induction of melittin gene transcription with doxycycline inhibited subsequent infection in mice. Half of the mice were free from infection within 3–4 weeks. | [68] |
Peptides: Cecropin D2A21, Cecropin D4E1 | C. trachomatis (D), (F) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 0, 5, 30, 60, 90, or 120 min prior to inoculation. Post-inoculation: administered at 0 h p.i. | D2A21, was shown to have a minimum cidal concentration (MCC) of 5 μM (18.32 μg/mL), and D4E1, an MCC of 7.5 μM (21.69 μg/mL). A 2% D2A21 gel formulation had an MCC of 0.2 mM (0.7 mg/mL). D2A21 incubation for 90 min caused chlamydial EB membranes to rupture causing the leaking of cytoplasm. | [69] |
Peptide: WLBU2 Coadministrant: 3-O-octyl-sn-glycerol (3-OG) | C. trachomatis (D), (E), (L2) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 5 or 120 min prior to inoculation. | WLBU2, at 50 μM, was 89% inhibitory after 5 min of exposure, and 100% after 120 min. Coadministration with 3-OG produces significantly increased activity. WLBU2 could be used at up to 60 μM without causing toxicity. | [63] |
Peptides: Protegrin-1, RTD-1, Cryptdin-4, Indolicidin | C. trachomatis (E), (L2), (MoPn) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 2 h prior to inoculation. | Protegrin-1 was found to have the strongest antichlamydial activity. Protegrin-1 inhibited the infectivity of the L2 serovar by 50% at a concentration (inhibitory concentration: IC50) of 6 μg/mL. Interaction between specific peptides and the various isolates tested appears to be complex and remarkably specific. Protegrins may have a broader antimicrobial activity than defensins. | [73] |
Peptides: Full-length β-sheet (×13), Truncated protegrins (×7), PG-1 disulfide variants (×7), α-Helical peptides (×12), Circular peptides (×6) | C. trachomatis (D), (E), (L2) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 2 h prior to inoculation. | β-Sheet protegrins and α-helical peptides were equally active. Enantiomers were as active as native structures. Moderate-sized circular mini-defensins were less effective against C. trachomatis. Moderate-sized cationic peptides may be useful in microbicide preparations designed to prevent chlamydial infection. | [74] |
Cathelicidin peptides: SMAP-29 (sheep), LL-37 (humans), BMAP-27 (cattle), BMAP-28 (cattle), BAC-7 (cattle), PG-1 (pigs) | C. trachomatis (A, D, E, H, I, LGV2) C. pneumoniae (IOL-207, CM-1) C. felis C. abortus C. psittaci C. pecorum | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 2 h prior to inoculation. | SMAP-29 was most active, C. trachomatis inhibition by >50% at 10 μg/mL, with BMAP-27, BMAP-28, and BAC-7, >50% at 80 μg/mL. SMAP-29 also active against C. pneumoniae and C. felis. C. pneumoniae strains were less susceptible to peptides than C. trachomatis. Most animal chlamydiae were not sensitive to cathelicidins at concentrations of around 10–80 μg/mL. PG-1 at 80 μg/mL resulted in an increase in the number of inclusions in some animal chlamydial species. | [75] |
Cathelicidin peptides: SMAP-29 (sheep), LL-37 (humans), BMAP-27 (cattle), BMAP-28 (cattle), BAC- 7 (cattle), PG-1 (pigs) | C. suis (MS04), (MS06 1–8) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 2 h prior to inoculation. | SMAP-29 was the most effective, six of the nine isolates, inhibition by >50% at 10 μg/mL (~3 μM). BAC-7 and BMAP-27, six of the nine isolates, inhibition by >50% at 80 μg/mL (~25 μM). LL-37 and PG-1 did not show any antichlamydial activity at 80 μg/mL. | [76] |
Cathelicidin peptides: PG-1 (pigs) | C. abortus (S26/3) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 2 h prior to inoculation. | PG-1-pretreated cells, resulted in a ×8 increase in the number of inclusions. PG-1 treatment after chlamydial infection had no increase in infectivity. Experiments demonstrated that PG-1 pretreatment facilitates the entry of C. abortus into host cells. | [77] |
Dermaseptin peptides: S4 D4D20S4 K4K20S4 S4 (5–28) S4 (1–12) | C. trachomatis (E) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 1 h prior to inoculation. Pre-inoculation: incubated with cells for 1 h prior to inoculation. Co-inoculation: inoculated cells simultaneously with EBs. Post-inoculation: administered at 0 h p.i. | S4, 81% inhibition after 48 h at 5 μg/mL. K4K20S4, 96% inhibition after 48 h at 5 μg/mL. 50% cytotoxic concentrations were determined to be higher than 25 μg/mL for each peptide, except for S4 at 10 μg/mL. Increasing the number of peptide positive charges reduced cytotoxicity. | [78] |
Transferrins: Ovotransferrin, Human lactoferrin, Bovine lactoferrin | C. psittaci (D) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 1 h prior to inoculation. Post-inoculation: administered at 3 h p.i. | Ovotransferrin, pre-incubation, at 0.5–5 mg/mL, prior to infecting BGM cells significantly lowered infection rates. Ovotransferrin was more effective than human and bovine lactoferrin in inhibiting bacterial irreversible attachment and cell entry. | [80] |
Transferrin: Ovotransferrin | C. psittaci (D) | In vivo Pre-inoculation: one dose administered pre-inoculation. Pre- & Post-inoculation: one dose administered pre-inoculation; administered daily for 12 days p.i. (turkeys) | A single pre-infection dose of 10 mg or a daily dose of 5 mg did not prevent turkeys from becoming infected with C. psittaci. Treatment significantly reduced the severity of infection. | [81] |
Transferrin: Ovotransferrin | C. psittaci (D), (F), (E/B) | In vivo Prophylaxis: from 2 weeks old, administered daily for 12 days. (turkeys) | A daily 5 mg dose for 12 days prevented any symptoms of C. psittaci infection in turkeys. Respiratory disease occurred at 9 weeks although, overall treatment was associated with 46% reduction of mortality. | [82] |
Antimicrobial Agent | Chlamydial Species | Study Design | Effects | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Nitric oxide | C. pneumoniae | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 2 h prior to inoculation. Co-inoculation: inoculated cells simultaneously with EBs. | Increases in nitric oxide (NO) concentration resulted in chlamydial inhibition in a dose-dependent manner. Immune control of chlamydial infections may trigger NO production. | [83] |
Enterococcus faecium | C. suis | In vivo Prophylaxis: from 24 days after mating, administered daily for 13 weeks for sows & 8 weeks for piglets. (pigs) | Swine consuming E. faecium for 13 weeks before and 8 weeks after giving birth, reduced the rate of infected piglets from 85% to 60%. The appearance of infection was also delayed. | [85] |
L. brevis, L. salivarius | C. trachomatis (L2) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 1 h prior to inoculation. Co-inoculation: inoculated cells simultaneously with EBs for 1 h. Post-inoculation: administered at 0 h p.i. | L. brevis was significantly more effective than L. salivarius. Both lactobacilli had an adverse effect on chlamydial EBs, on chlamydial adsorption to epithelial cells, and on intracellular phases of chlamydial replication. L. brevis inhibited HSV-2-induced C. trachomatis persistence. | [86] |
L. crispatus (×2), L. gasseri, L. jensenii | C. trachomatis (D), (L2) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 1 h prior to inoculation. | Lactobacillus-conditioned media from each of the lactobacillus strains exhibited similar inhibitory activity. Acidic pH due to lactic acid production was attributed to chlamydial inhibition. Levels of H2O2 present did not produce chlamydial inhibition. | [87] |
L. crispatus | C. trachomatis (D) | In vitro Pre-inoculation: incubated with cells for 6 h prior to inoculation. | L. crispatus inhibits the adhesion of chlamydial cells to human epithelial cells or macrophages, and inhibited C. trachomatis infectivity. Modulation of inflammatory cytokines, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α, and anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10, was observed. | [88] |
Bacteria L. crispatus (×8), L. gasseri (×6), L. vaginalis (×3) Cellular Metabolite Lactic acid | C. trachomatis (D) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 7, 15, or 60 min prior to inoculation. | L. crispatus exhibited highest efficacy although all lactobacilli exerted a strong inhibitory effect. Activity corresponds to increased cellular metabolites and a resulting lower pH. Both lactic acid and acidic conditions were necessary for inhibition. Lactobacilli supernatants exhibited greater inhibition than only lactic acid. | [89] |
Antimicrobial Agent | Chlamydial Species | Study Design | Effects | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Praneem: S. mukerossi saponins, A. indica seed extract, Quinine hydrochloride | C. trachomatis (D) | In vivo Pre-inoculation: one dose administered prior to inoculation. (mice) Clinical treatment: administered daily for 7 days. (human) | Application of 5 mL of cream for 8 days, resulted in C. trachomatis being cleared from the cervicovaginal region of patients. Topical application is effective in blocking chlamydial vaginal transmission, with a transmission rate of only ~14%. Toxicity studies indicate a lack of side effects, such as skin irritation or sensitization. | [90,91,92] |
CH-005: S. mukerossi saponins, M. citrata oil, Natural polycationic polymer | C. trachomatis (D) | In vivo Pre-inoculation: one dose administered prior to inoculation. (mice) | Topical application is effective in blocking chlamydial vaginal transmission with a transmission rate of only ~4%. | [91] |
BASANT: S. mukerossi saponins, A. vera, P. emblica, curcumin | C. trachomatis (D) | In vitro Pre-treatment: incubated with EBs for 15, 30, or 60 min prior to inoculation. Post-inoculation: administered at 2 h p.i. | In vitro pre-incubation exposure, 100% inhibition was achieved in 15 min at 65 μg/mL, 30 min at 35 μg/mL, and 60 min at 15 μg/mL. In vitro post-incubation exposure, the MIC was determined to be ~9 μg/mL. There are no known side effects of BASANT, which is equally effective as a cream or tablet. | [93,94] |
© 2016 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Brown, M.A.; Potroz, M.G.; Teh, S.-W.; Cho, N.-J. Natural Products for the Treatment of Chlamydiaceae Infections. Microorganisms 2016, 4, 39. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms4040039
Brown MA, Potroz MG, Teh S-W, Cho N-J. Natural Products for the Treatment of Chlamydiaceae Infections. Microorganisms. 2016; 4(4):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms4040039
Chicago/Turabian StyleBrown, Mika A., Michael G. Potroz, Seoh-Wei Teh, and Nam-Joon Cho. 2016. "Natural Products for the Treatment of Chlamydiaceae Infections" Microorganisms 4, no. 4: 39. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms4040039