New Insights into the Antimicrobial Potential of Polyalthia longifolia—Antibiofilm Activity and Synergistic Effect in Combination with Penicillin against Staphylococcus aureus
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Plant Material
2.2. Extract Preparation
2.3. Phytochemical Analysis
2.4. Microbial Strains
2.5. Assessment of Antimicrobial Activity
2.5.1. Determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal/Fungicidal Concentration (MBC/MFC)
2.5.2. Microbial Growth Analysis
2.5.3. Time-Kill Assay
2.6. Evaluation of Membrane Integrity
2.7. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
2.8. In Vitro Biofilm Formation
2.9. Checkerboard Assay
2.10. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Antimicrobial Activity of P. longifolia Extracts
3.2. The Chemical Composition of PlLm and PlLe Extracts
3.2.1. P. longifolia Extracts Inhibited S. aureus Growth in a Dose and Time Dependent Manner
3.2.2. P. longifolia Leaf Extracts Have a Potent Bactericidal Activity against S. aureus Cells
3.3. Mode of Action
3.3.1. PlLm and PlLe Extracts Impair the Integrity of the Cellular Membrane
3.3.2. Irreversible Cell Morphological Damage Is Induced by PlLm Extract
3.4. Bacterial Biofilm Formation Was Inhibited by PlLm and PlLe Extracts
3.5. Effect of P. longifolia Extracts in Combination with Penicillin against a MRSA Strain
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Extract | S. aureus ATCC 25923 | E. coli ATCC 25922 | C. albicans P37037 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MIC | MBC | MIC | MBC | MIC | MFC | |
PlLm | 0.039 | 0.078 | 10 | 20 | 5 | 10 |
PlLe | 0.078 | 0.156 | 10 | 20 | 10 | 10 |
PlLw | 5 | 10 | 5 | 10 | 5 | 5 |
PlSm | 0.310 | 20 | 10 | 20 | 5 | 10 |
PlSe | 0.152 | 20 | 10 | 20 | 5 | 10 |
PlSw | 5 | 20 | 5 | 20 | 5 | 5 |
Ampicillin | 0.00781 | - | 0.00781 | - | - | - |
Kanamycin | 0.00195 | - | 0.00195 | - | - | - |
Nystatin | - | - | - | - | 0.03 | - |
Compound | Extracts | |
---|---|---|
PlLm | PlLe | |
Flavonoids (mg/mL *) | ||
1. Catechin | 42.8096 ± 0.0213 | 41.8657 ± 0.0511 |
2. Epicatechin | 22.7416 ± 0.0110 | 19.5180 ± 0.0155 |
3. Gallic acid derivatives | 0.0093 ± 0.0012 | 9.8197 ± 0.0153 |
6. Quercetin-3-arabinoside | 11.2497 ± 0.0312 | 11.2647 ± 0.0222 |
7. Apigenin | 22.0347 ± 0.0322 | 13.2238 ± 0.0113 |
Polyphenolcarboxylic acids (mg/mL) | ||
4. Caffeic acid | 5.3001 ± 0.0201 | 0.0028 ± 0.0010 |
5. Rosmarinic acid | 25.1654 ± 0.0412 | 19.333 ± 0.0313 |
Iridoids (mg/mL) | ||
8. Harpagoside | 1.0231 ± 0.0152 | 0.0093 ± 0.0021 |
9. Loganin | 0.0254 ± 0.0031 | 0.0145 ± 0.0013 |
MIC (mg/mL) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Strain | Alone | In Combination | ||||
PlLm Extract | Penicillin | PlLm Extract | Penicillin | FICI | Interaction | |
MRSA | 0.0003 | 2 | 2 | Indifference | ||
0.0003 | 1 | 1 | Indifference | |||
0.001 | 0.5 | 0.5 | Additivity | |||
0.009 | 0.25 | 0.27 | Synergy | |||
0.019 | 0.125 | 0.18 | Synergy | |||
0.312 | 1 | 0.039 | 0.062 | 0.18 | Synergy | |
0.078 | 0.031 | 0.28 | Synergy | |||
0.156 | 0.015 | 0.51 | Additivity | |||
PlLe Extract | Penicillin | PlLe Extract | Penicillin | FICI | Interaction | |
0.001 | 2 | 2 | Indifference | |||
0.002 | 1 | 1 | Indifference | |||
0.002 | 0.5 | 0.5 | Additivity | |||
0.624 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.25 | 0.28 | Synergy | |
0.039 | 0.125 | 0.18 | Synergy | |||
0.078 | 0.06 | 0.18 | Synergy | |||
0.015 | 0.03 | 0.28 | Synergy | |||
0.312 | 0.01 | 0.51 | Additivity |
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Savu, M.; Simo, M.K.; Fopokam, G.X.; Olaru, S.M.; Cioanca, O.; Boyom, F.F.; Stefan, M. New Insights into the Antimicrobial Potential of Polyalthia longifolia—Antibiofilm Activity and Synergistic Effect in Combination with Penicillin against Staphylococcus aureus. Microorganisms 2022, 10, 1943. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10101943
Savu M, Simo MK, Fopokam GX, Olaru SM, Cioanca O, Boyom FF, Stefan M. New Insights into the Antimicrobial Potential of Polyalthia longifolia—Antibiofilm Activity and Synergistic Effect in Combination with Penicillin against Staphylococcus aureus. Microorganisms. 2022; 10(10):1943. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10101943
Chicago/Turabian StyleSavu, Mihaela, Marguerite Kamdem Simo, Gabriel Xavier Fopokam, Stefan Mihaita Olaru, Oana Cioanca, Fabrice Fekam Boyom, and Marius Stefan. 2022. "New Insights into the Antimicrobial Potential of Polyalthia longifolia—Antibiofilm Activity and Synergistic Effect in Combination with Penicillin against Staphylococcus aureus" Microorganisms 10, no. 10: 1943. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10101943