Identifying and Evaluating Cultural Genes in the Historic Centre of Macao: A Multi-Stakeholder Perspective

Abstract

Under the dual pressures of urbanization and tourism development, the Historic Centre of Macao, as a World Cultural Heritage site, faces challenges including the inadequate transmission of cultural elements and the excessive commercialisation of tourism development. To systematically identify and safeguard its cultural characteristics, this study introduces the theory of cultural genes, constructing a dual-strand identification model encompassing both tangible and intangible cultural genes. This model integrates architectural function, structure, and ornamentation, alongside indigenous religions, arts, and folklore, thereby achieving a comprehensive extraction of cultural elements. Building upon this foundation, the study employed the AHP-fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method to quantitatively assess the degree of identification with various cultural elements, integrating perspectives from three distinct groups: tourists, residents, and third-party experts. The findings revealed significant disparities in cultural identification across these groups. For instance, residents demonstrated the highest level of identification with beliefs and folk customs, whilst tourists favoured more tangible aspects such as decorative elements and cuisine, exhibiting generally weaker identification with architectural structures. The findings demonstrate that this study, through the establishment of a systematic framework for identifying cultural genes and a multi-stakeholder evaluation system, has accurately discerned the characteristics of various cultural genes and the public’s level of identification with them. This provides a scientific basis for evidence-based, differentiated, and precise governance of the Historic Centre of Macao, offering significant reference value for the conservation and revitalisation of similar cultural heritage sites.

1. Introduction

Historic districts, comprising numerous cultural heritage sites, serve as vital conduits for sustaining cultural identity, preserving historical continuity, and fostering sustainable social development [1]. They reflect the collective memory of urban evolution and possess distinct cultural attributes [2]. Globally, there is now widespread consensus on the preservation of historic districts. Through international conventions such as the World Heritage Convention, UNESCO has spearheaded efforts to enhance the commitment of developed nations to safeguarding and protecting these historic districts [3,4]. Today, nations worldwide recognize the importance of preserving historic districts, and the rational conservation and sustainable development of these areas have become pressing global challenges [5,6,7]. As a developing nation, China has progressively heightened its emphasis on historic districts, actively establishing a conservation framework tailored to its national context to achieve the synergistic advancement of cultural heritage preservation and local development [8]. The Historic Centre of Macao, as the oldest and most complete example of Sino-Western cultural fusion within China, was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2005 due to its unique cultural significance. At present, both the Macao Special Administrative Region Government and the Chinese Government have successively introduced various protective regulations, including the Cultural Heritage Protection Law and the Conservation and Management Plan for the Historic Centre of Macao, which provide crucial guidance for systematic conservation. However, alongside accelerated urbanisation and the rise of tourism, Macau’s current tourism development exhibits a trend dominated by commercial interests. Issues such as cultural neglect during development, misinterpretation of spatial symbols, substitution of traditional materials and craftsmanship, excessive commercialisation, and the lack of successors for intangible cultural heritage have undermined the integrity and authenticity of the historic centre.

Research Gaps and Questions

Past research has offered valuable insights into the conservation and development of historic districts from diverse perspectives [9], yet certain limitations persist. Firstly, current research predominantly focuses on optimising individual physical spaces, lacking a comprehensive identification of all elements. Historic districts are constituted by both tangible spatial features and cultural connotations, necessitating the holistic integration of material and immaterial cultural elements. Secondly, most current research focuses on physical conservation strategies or technical specifications [10,11,12], with relatively scant attention paid to cultural identity [13,14]. Furthermore, most studies on cultural identity focus solely on the perspective of tourists as a single group, lacking evaluations from individuals with diverse backgrounds. The formation of cultural identity in historic districts is inextricably linked to the activities of its inhabitants. To mitigate subjective bias, assessments of cultural identity should incorporate the collective opinions of diverse stakeholder groups, including tourists, residents, and third-party experts [15].

This study aims to answer the following research questions:

(1) What are the core tangible and intangible cultural genes that constitute the identity of the Historic Centre of Macao?

(2) How do different stakeholders (tourists, residents, and third-party experts) perceive and identify with these cultural genes?

(3) What are the underlying causes of the differences in cultural identification among groups, and what conservation strategies can be derived?

Against this backdrop, this study takes the Historic Centre of Macao as a case example to:

(1) Construct a dual-strand identification model for “tangible–intangible” cultural genes, systematically investigating the identification, extraction, and expression of all cultural gene elements;

(2) Integrate multiple perspectives from visitors, residents, and third-party representatives, employing the AHP-FCE method to evaluate cultural gene recognition;

(3) Identify underlying causes and propose targeted cultural gene development strategies.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Evolution of Historic District Research

As early as the early nineteenth century, academic circles accorded significant attention to research concerning historic districts. Pioneers such as John Ruskin and Camillo Sitte initiated studies from an architectural perspective [16,17]. By the mid-twentieth century, research gradually expanded to encompass spatial and morphological studies centred on the material dimensions of architecture—including its distinctive features and evolutionary trajectory, streetscapes and spatial analysis, and the evolution of urban texture and form. This marked a shift in research perspective, progressing from architectural details to entire urban districts, and from micro-level individual structures to macro-level regional contexts [18,19,20,21]. Since the 1980s, an increasing number of scholars have approached the study of historic districts from ideological perspectives such as interpreting their historical, cultural and social value, alongside sustainable development. This research has revealed the mutually reinforcing developmental logic between people, space and society [22,23,24,25,26]. With the vigorous development of the economy, the focus of research on historic districts has gradually shifted towards practical aspects such as assessing the economic benefits of development and evaluating the effectiveness of tourism infrastructure. This reflects the significant impact economic growth exerts upon historic districts [27,28,29,30].

2.2. From Design Patterns to Cultural Genes

In this context of shifting focus towards the cultural and social value of the built environment, a parallel and highly influential line of inquiry has emerged, pioneered by scholars such as Christopher Alexander, which seeks to distil reusable solutions for design and planning. Alexander’s seminal work, “A Pattern Language,” posits that successful urban spaces and buildings are generated by applying a timeless language of design patterns, each rooted in human needs and local culture [31]. This approach inherently values preservation, as it treats these patterns as a cultural repository to be adapted and passed down through generations. This conceptual shift—from static preservation to the identification of reusable, culturally significant units—provides a direct theoretical antecedent to the notion of “cultural genes” explored in our study.

Building upon this foundation, Michael Mehaffy has explored how pattern languages can inform sustainable urbanism and the regeneration of historic fabrics [32]. Nir Buras similarly champions timeless architectural principles, arguing that understanding durable, culture-bound patterns is essential for creating harmonious places [33]. Scholars like Bin Jiang have applied contemporary analytical methods—such as space syntax and geographic information systems—to quantitatively assess traditional patterns in urban environments [34]. Ashraf Salama emphasizes understanding the socio-cultural dimensions of built form for evidence-based, culturally sensitive design [35]. Alexandros Lavdas employs computational techniques to analyse complex visual and spatial characteristics of urban landscapes [36]. Collectively, this body of work underscores that the fundamental elements of the built environment—from ornament to district layout—can be understood as identifiable, reusable, and culturally significant units of information.

2.3. Multidisciplinary Approaches to Heritage Conservation

As the tension between conservation and contemporary development intensifies, research has exhibited a trend towards multidisciplinary convergence [37]. Urban planning scholars have proposed tiered management approaches for holistic conservation, encompassing everything from overall layout to architectural details [38,39,40]. At the architectural level, research focuses on preservation and restoration of physical spaces [41]. At the historical level, scholars emphasize the role of historic districts as repositories of urban memory [42]. From a cultural studies perspective, greater emphasis is placed on safeguarding intangible cultural heritage, including local beliefs, regional arts, and distinctive folk customs [43].

In terms of methodology, new technologies have provided novel approaches. Techniques such as three-dimensional laser scanning, remote sensing surveying, and geographic information systems enable rapid acquisition of spatial data, facilitating digital archives [44,45,46]. Fu et al. applied space syntax to assess the spatial structure and accessibility of historic districts [47]. Ma et al. used multi-objective optimization algorithms to simulate renewal schemes considering conservation, economic, and social benefits [48,49]. Moreover, big data and artificial intelligence are employed to analyse socio-cultural data. For instance, Lyu et al. utilized social media data mining to gauge public perceptions and preferences regarding historic neighbourhoods [50].

2.4. Cultural Identity and Multi-Stakeholder Perspectives

In recent years, the principle of prioritising humanistic values has gradually become mainstream. An increasing number of scholars recognize that enhancing cultural identity contributes to sustainable development [51]. Incorporating the tourist perspective into cultural identity research is emerging as a new trend. Studies indicate that human-centred concepts such as tourist perceptions and satisfaction can effectively enhance cultural identity [52]. For instance, questionnaire surveys have demonstrated that visitors’ perceptions of local cultural authenticity positively influence place attachment [53]. Within heritage tourism, the quality of visitors’ experiences has been shown to shape cultural identity with the destination [54]. Concurrently, text analysis of visitor reviews reveals a strong correlation between emotional tone and identification with local culture [55]. Moreover, visitors’ perceptions of a city’s image are regarded as a significant dimension for gauging cultural identity [56].

3. Theoretical Foundations of Cultural Genes

Inspired by the biological concept of “genes” [57], American anthropologists Kroeber and Clarkhon pioneered the original concept of cultural genes in 1950. They posited that local cultures formed under distinct geographical conditions possess analogous genetic traits to biological genes, gradually accumulating and evolving into distinctive cultural characteristics [58]. In 1976, British evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins formally introduced the concept of the “cultural gene,” defining it as the fundamental factor determining the transmission and variation of cultural systems [59]. As an information pattern, the cultural gene constitutes the fundamental unit representing “cultural information” [60,61]. Architecture, landscapes, customs, and similar phenomena are all regarded as cultural genes [62], capable of replication and perpetuation through means such as education and imitation [63].

Presently, cultural gene theory finds extensive application across three domains. Firstly, the identification and extraction of cultural genes. This level focuses on classification systems and identification methodologies for cultural genes. Cultural genes are typically categorized by material form into tangible dominant genes and intangible latent genes. Tangible cultural genes constitute the external manifestation of cultural elements, encompassing architectural function, structure, ornamentation, and so forth [64,65,66]. Intangible cultural genes are embedded within implicit elements such as indigenous religions, regional arts, and distinctive folk customs [67,68,69]. Secondly, protection strategies are grounded in cultural genes. This level emphasizes constructing a holistic conservation framework based on the dual attributes of cultural genes—both explicit and implicit [70]. At the material level, protective measures primarily encompass architectural restoration, spatial texture preservation, and gene database development. Concurrently, material genes undergo tiered conservation from holistic to granular scales, employing techniques such as selective demolition and replacement, node-based protection, and adaptive reuse to achieve organic integration of traditional fabric with contemporary functionality. At the non-material level, approaches such as enhancing public awareness and promoting living transmission are employed, integrating cultural genes into contemporary production and daily life to strengthen cultural identity [71]. Furthermore, digital conservation methods like 4D modelling, GIS modelling, and virtual scene reconstruction provide technical support for documenting and transmitting cultural genes [72]. Thirdly, there is the tourism-oriented utilization of cultural genes. Against the backdrop of cultural-tourism integration, cultural genes have become a core element in enhancing the cultural substance and tourism appeal of historic districts [73]. Relevant research primarily focuses on optimising the utilization of cultural genes and analysing visitor satisfaction. The former emphasises achieving innovative transformation of cultural resources through constructing cultural databases and designing diversified tourism development models [74]. The latter leverages textual data such as social media reviews to analyse visitors’ perceptions and satisfaction with cultural genes, thereby identifying influencing factors [75]. During tourism development, emphasis should be placed on preserving cultural gene diversity and cultural substrates to fulfil visitors’ demand for cross-cultural experiences, ultimately achieving a virtuous cycle between historic district conservation and tourism growth [76].

Currently, cultural gene research, as an emerging field, has developed relatively systematic methodologies [77]. These enable comprehensive analysis and summarisation of architectural heritage’s material characteristics and cultural connotations, demonstrating strong applicability in identifying and preserving cultural features [78]. They serve as elemental indicators for studying cultural identity, facilitating evaluations of cultural affinity among diverse groups. This theoretical framework is suitable for conducting cultural element surveys, systematisation, and recognition assessments within the Historic Centre of Macao.

4. Methodology

4.1. Overview of the Study Area

The Historic Centre of Macao is situated at the southwestern tip of the Macao Peninsula, covering a total area of approximately 1.23 square kilometres. The core zone spans roughly 0.16 square kilometres, while the buffer zone extends over approximately 1.07 square kilometres. The core zone comprises eight plaza spaces, 22 designated immovable properties, and the streets connecting these plazas and historic buildings. Among these, the only plaza spaces located within the core zone are St. Augustine’s Square, Lilau Square, Senado Square, and Cathedral Square. The buffer zone, located peripherally to the core zone, contains a significant concentration of buildings. This study primarily selected 14 monuments and 7 buildings with architectural artistic value from the officially designated lists, including the Real Estate Register, World Heritage List, and Macao Statutory Protection List. These were chosen as research subjects owing to their relatively intact preservation, significant historical value, distinctive characteristics, and sound state of transmission (Figure 1).

4.2. Data Sources

The data for this study primarily originates from:

• Documentary materials. These include information on the architectural inventory of the Archives of Macau, Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level, and the Intangible Cultural Heritage Unit of the Cultural Affairs Bureau. Textual data were related to the Historic Centre of Macao, including historical documents such as clan genealogies, family precepts, and local gazetteers, as well as publicly available conservation plan texts from local authorities.
• Geospatial data. Building coordinates were obtained using Baidu’s coordinate selection tool, while satellite imagery and parcel data were collected via BIGEMAP map download software. Foundational geographic data are primarily sourced from the National Geomatics Information Website.
• Field Research. Through two surveys conducted between February 2024 and October 2025, fifty buildings within the study area were visited on-site. Over 2000 photographs were captured on-site, alongside the survey of more than 100 architectural drawings. Field research also included participatory observation of folk customs, documenting 62 segments of ritual footage. Field research data were ultimately compiled into an informational dossier comprising approximately 160,000 words and over 140 charts and diagrams. Between May and September 2025, 860 questionnaires were distributed to tourists, residents, and third-party representatives, with 832 returned—a response rate of approximately 96.7%. This comprised 291 tourist responses, 348 resident responses, and 193 third-party representative responses.

4.3. Research Methodology and Process

This study adheres to the principle of “intrinsic uniqueness, extrinsic uniqueness, partial uniqueness, and holistic advantage” for a comprehensive identification of cultural genes comprising the tangible and intangible heritage of the Historic Centre of Macao. The most significant and readily identifiable cultural genes were extracted, followed by an evaluation of identification with cultural genes. The evaluation outcomes were synthesized to propose conservation strategies for the cultural genes of the Historic Centre of Macao, thereby offering additional avenues for its preservation.

4.3.1. Cultural Gene Identification Framework for the Historic Centre of Macao

To systematically capture the cultural essence of the Historic Centre of Macao, this study establishes a dual-strand system encompassing both tangible and intangible cultural genes (Figure 2). At the material genetic level, this encompasses multi-tiered physical information including architectural function, structure, and ornamentation [79,80,81]. The intangible genetic layer encompasses spiritual and cultural information such as indigenous religions, local arts, and distinctive folk traditions [82,83,84], forming a dual-strand cultural gene system for the Historic Centre of Macao encompassing six dimensions. To operationalize this framework, a combination of extraction methods is applied, including audiovisual extraction, structural extraction, element extraction, pattern extraction, semantic extraction, and textual extraction. These methods draw upon diverse data sources such as archival documents, field survey records, geographic information, and audio-visual materials. Supported by digital tools including GIS, CAD, and 3D scanning technologies, the identification process adheres to the principles of “intrinsic uniqueness, extrinsic uniqueness, local uniqueness, and holistic advantage.” This systematic approach ensures that all relevant cultural gene elements are comprehensively identified, extracted, and documented, providing a robust foundation for subsequent recognition evaluation.

4.3.2. Evaluation System of Cultural Identity in the Historic Centre of Macao

To accurately grasp the state of cultural identity recognition within the Historic Centre of Macao and establish a prioritised sequence for its development, this study employs the AHP-fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method to construct an evaluation framework for assessing identity recognition within the Historic Centre of Macao (Figure 3). This method synthesises the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) with the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method (FCE). This method enables hierarchical decomposition of elements associated with the target, employing a comprehensive evaluation approach combining comparison and fuzzy mathematics [85]; it facilitates handling multi-level evaluation indicators and uncertain information within the cultural gene identity recognition of the Macao Historic Centre, yielding systematic and intuitive evaluation outcomes.

The evaluation process consists of five main steps. First, evaluation indicators are established based on the dual-strand cultural gene identification results. Second, a judgment matrix is constructed with input from nine experts representing diverse perspectives—including architects, academic researchers, and local resident representatives—who perform pairwise comparisons using a 1–9 scale to determine indicator weights; consistency is subsequently verified to ensure data validity. Third, a five-point rating set is created using the Likert scale, with corresponding scores of 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 assigned to each level. Fourth, evaluation data are collected through questionnaires distributed to three stakeholder groups: tourists, residents, and third-party representatives. Finally, multi-level fuzzy synthesis operations are performed to calculate membership degrees and generate fuzzy comprehensive evaluation scores. The resulting scores enable the classification of cultural genes into three categories—strong, moderate, and weak sense of identification—thereby informing targeted development strategies for heritage conservation.

• Establishing Evaluation Indicators

Design the cultural gene identification system for the Historic Centre of Macau based on the factor elements and identification results contained within the dual-chain model of “material–immaterial” cultural genes.

2.

Constructing the Evaluation Matrix and Determining Weights

Considering the differing functional roles of cultural genes carrying distinct information within the organic whole, a judgement matrix was constructed. This involved inviting nine experts from diverse perspectives, including architects, academic researchers, and local resident representatives, to conduct comparative assessments and assign values to each tier of indicators using a 1–9 scale method. This indicates the relative importance value of $X_i$ to $X_j$ for the corresponding criterion level; $X$ denotes the indicator name; and n represents the number of indicators, yielding the following judgement matrix:

$$X={\left(X_{ij}\right)}_{n\times n}=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{X}_{11}& \cdots & X_{1n}\\ ⋮& \ddots & ⋮\\ X_{1n}& \cdots & X_{nn}\end{array}\right]$$

This study employs the sum-of-products method to conduct consistency testing on the judgement matrix, thereby ensuring the validity of the evaluation data. The calculation proceeds as follows:

Each column of the matrix is normalized, i, j = 1, 2, …, n:

$${\overline{X}}_{ij}={\displaystyle \frac{X_{ij}}{{\sum }_{i=1}^n{X}_{ij}}}$$

Sum this, i = 1, 2, …, n:

$${\overline{W}}_i=\sum _{j=1}^n{\overline{X}}_{ij}$$

Normalize the vector, i = 1, 2, …, n:

$$W_i={\displaystyle \frac{{\overline{W}}_i}{{\sum }_{j=1}^n{\overline{W}}_j}}$$

Calculate the maximum eigenvalue ${\mathrm{\lambda }}_{max}$, i, j = 1, 2, …, n:

$${\mathrm{\lambda }}_{max}=\sum _{i=1}^n{\displaystyle \frac{{\left(XW\right)}_i}{{nw}_i}}$$

Calculate consistency metrics CI, with n determining the order of a matrix:

$$CI={\displaystyle \frac{{(\mathrm{\lambda }}_{max}-n)}{(n-1)}}$$

The random consistency index RI is introduced for measurement.

Calculate the random consistency ratio, that is CR:

$$CR={\displaystyle \frac{CI}{RI}}$$

When CR < 0.1, this indicates that the data are consistent.

3.

Establishing the Comment Set

Create a rating set using the Likert 5-point scale method. One represents a “very weak sense of identification” and 5 represents the “strongest sense of identification”, with scores of 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 assigned to each scale, respectively, forming the following rating set: $V$ = {very good inheritance, good inheritance, fair inheritance, poor inheritance, very poor inheritance} = {100, 80, 60, 40, 20}.

4.

Collection of Evaluation Data

This study primarily employed questionnaires to collect evaluation results on cultural gene identification from tourists, residents, and third-party representatives.

5.

Multi-level Fuzzy Integration

Calculate the membership degrees of evaluation factors within the comment set, constructing corresponding graded fuzzy membership degrees and their fuzzy membership matrices. Employ fuzzy algorithms to perform layer-by-layer calculations based on weight values $W$ and the determined fuzzy evaluation matrix, yielding fuzzy evaluation result sets for each level, denoted as $B$. Ultimately, compute the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation score from the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation result set and comment set, expressed as follows:

$$F=B\ast V$$

The scores provide an intuitive and accurate reflection of the current status of recognition for each cultural gene, enabling historical districts to implement gene regulation. Higher scores indicate stronger recognition of cultural genes, and vice versa. Consequently, indicators scoring between 100 and 70 points (inclusive of 70) represent cultural genes with relatively high recognition. Cultural genes scoring between 70 and 50 points (inclusive) indicate moderate recognition. Indicators scoring below 50 points may be classified as cultural genes with weaker recognition.

5. Cultural Gene Identification Results

Following the aforementioned process, the cultural gene identification results for the Historic Centre of Macao yielded six identifying factors and fifteen factor indicators (Figure 4). These six factors are evenly distributed across the tangible and intangible dimensions: the tangible dimension encompasses architectural function genes, architectural structure genes, and architectural ornamentation genes, while the intangible dimension encompasses indigenous religion genes, vernacular art genes, and vernacular traditions genes. Together, these factors and their corresponding indicators form a comprehensive framework that captures the material and immaterial cultural essence of the Historic Centre of Macao, providing the foundational dataset for the subsequent multi-stakeholder recognition evaluation.

5.1. Identification of Architectural Cultural Genes

5.1.1. Architectural Function Genes

The historic buildings of the Historic Centre of Macao, possessing historical value, may be categorised according to their functional use into five principal types: residential, commercial, military, political, and cultural and educational. Buildings of differing functional categories served distinct societal needs. Based on field surveys and archival documentation, these five functional categories are summarized, with representative buildings illustrated for each type—such as Lou Kau Mansion for residential, Mount Fortress for military, and Dom Pedro V Theatre for cultural and educational purposes (

Table 1. Results of architectural function identification for cultural genes in the Historic Centre of Macao.

Category	Architectural Function Genes
Identification Results	Residential	Military	Political	Cultural and Educational
Representative Diagram	Lou Kau Mansion	Mount Fortress	Headquarters Building of the Municipal Affairs Bureau	Dom Pedro V Theatre

). Residential buildings such as the Mandarin’s House and Lou Kau Mansion primarily provided essential living and daily-use spaces. Military sites such as Bom Parto Fortress and Mount Fortress fulfilled defensive, surveillance, and garrison purposes. Political buildings, such as the Headquarters Building of the Municipal Affairs Bureau, functioned as centres for public affairs management and the exercise of authority, including administration, judiciary, and customs. Cultural and educational buildings, including the Dom Pedro V Theatre and the Sir Robert Ho Tung Library Building, provided spaces for education, cultural and artistic activities, religious practice, and knowledge dissemination, serving spiritual and cultural needs alongside social education.

5.1.2. Architectural Structure Genes

The architectural structure of the Historic Centre of Macao is primarily categorised into four levels: roof shapes, gable elevations, façade doors and windows, and structural shapes. Each category is further divided into Chinese and Western subtypes, with representative buildings illustrated to reflect the distinct architectural traditions (

Table 2. Identification results of architectural structures in the cultural gene pool of the Historic Centre of Macao.

Category	Roof Shapes
Subcategory	Chinese Roof Shapes						Western Roof Shapes
Identification Result	Hard-gabled roof		Hipped roof		Double-eave hip-and-gable roof		Sloping roof		Dome
Representative Diagram	Templo de Sam Kai Vui Kun		Na Tcha Temple		The Hall of Benevolence of Barra Temple		Dom Pedro V Theatre		Joseph’s Seminary Church
Major Categories	Gable Elevations
Subcategory	Chinese Forms			Western Forms
Identification Result	Wok-ear Gable			Triangular pediment				Broken pediment
Representative Diagram	Barra Temple			Dom Pedro V Theatre				Joseph’s Seminary Church
Major Categories	Facade Doors and Windows
Subcategory	Chinese Forms							Western Forms (Arched Doors and Windows)
Identification Results	Manchuria windows	Tang-long doors		Oyster-shell windows		Omamental perforated windows		Semicircular arch		Gothic arch
Representative Diagram	Lou Kau Mansion	Mandarin’s House		Mandarin’s House		Mandarin’s House		Dom Pedro V Theatre		Former Mater Dei Church
Major Categories	Structural Forms
Subcategory	Chinese (Timber Frame)							Western
Identification Result	Post-and-lintel construction			Column-and-tie construction				Brick-and-stone masonry
Representative Diagram	Mandarin’s House			Lou Kau Mansion				Cathedral

).

Chinese roof shapes primarily encompass hard gable roofs, hip-and-gable roofs, and double-eave hip-and-gable roofs. Hard gable roofs are extensively employed in vernacular structures such as dwellings and shops. Hip-and-gable roofs are typically found on significant temples and government offices. The double-eave hip-and-gable roofs, due to their complex craftsmanship, are exemplified solely by the Hall of Benevolence of Barra Temple. Among Western roof shapes, roofs are primarily categorised into pitched roofs and domes. Pitched roofs comprise hipped or gabled types, predominantly used in Portuguese-style residences or certain church structures. Domes are chiefly employed in the central structures of churches, featuring arched ceilings with skylights or light wells.

Chinese gable facades most commonly feature wok-ear gables. Wok-ear gables represent a prevalent form in Lingnan vernacular dwellings, characterised by symmetrical curved gables on both sides, with a double-curved arch at the apex resembling wok handles. In Western gables, the primary forms include triangular pediments and broken pediments. A triangular pediment refers to the triangular gable at the top of a gable wall, commonly used on the main façades of churches and public buildings, often undecorated or simply adorned. A broken pediment similarly appears at the apex of church façades, disrupting the integrity of the classical triangular pediment. Thus, compared to Chinese gable walls emphasising functionality and symbolic usage, Western gable walls place greater emphasis on the aesthetic appeal of formal language, reflecting distinct design philosophies.

Facade doors and windows serve as the interface between architecture and its environment. Chinese door and window forms continue the Lingnan tradition, including Manchuria window, tang-long doors, oyster-shell windows, and omamental perforated windows. Their forms predominantly feature rectangles, adorned with motifs such as coin patterns, floral arrangements, birds, fish, and insects, often rendered in solemn, dignified hues. In Western forms, arched doors and windows predominate, categorised into semicircular arches and Gothic arches. These exhibit the aesthetic appeal of curved arcs and rich geometric forms, aiming to evoke a sacred atmosphere. Consequently, compared to the relatively restrained forms of Chinese windows and doors, Western counterparts exhibit more exaggerated designs.

The structural framework of Chinese-style architecture predominantly features timber construction. Traditional timber-framed structures employ a combination of the post-and-lintel construction and column-and-tie construction methods. The post-and-lintel construction uses substantial timber for spacious interiors, suited to grand residences and halls; column-and-tie construction utilises finer timber to conserve resources, commonly found in small to medium-sized dwellings. Western architecture, however, centres on brick-and-stone masonry, relying primarily on brick or stone columns for load bearing.

5.1.3. Architectural Ornamentation Genes

The architectural ornamentation genes of the Historic Centre of Macao are primarily categorised into three aspects: architectural materials, architectural colours, and decorative forms. The specific material types, colour palettes, and decorative techniques identified through field surveys, along with representative buildings for each, are summarized (

Table 3. Identification results of architectural ornamentation reflecting the cultural genes of the Historic Centre of Macao.

Category

Architectural Materials

Identification Results

Blue bricks

Grey tiles

Red tiles

Timber

Stone

Coloured glazed bricks/tiles

Representative diagram

Mandarin’s House

Mandarin’s House

Dom Pedro V Theatre

Mandarin’s House

Former Mater Dei Church

Headquarters Building of the Municipal Affairs Bureau

Major Categories

Architectural Colours

Minor Category

Traditional Chinese blue-grey tones

Portuguese-inspired warm hues

Identification Results

Blue-grey

White and light colours

Warm red

Warm yellow

Green/Blue tones

Representative diagram

Lou Kau Mansion

Mandarin’s House

Headquarters Building of the Orient Foundation

Headquarters Building of the Marine and Water Bureau

Dom Pedro V Theatre

Major Categories

Decorative Forms

Subcategory

Chinese Forms

Western Forms

Identification Result

Lime sculpting

Wood carving

Stone carving

Brick carving

Iron art

Painted decoration

Glazed tiles

Representative Diagram

Lou Kau Mansion

Lou Kau Mansion

A-Ma Temple

Lou Kau Mansion

Sir Robert Ho Tung Library Building

Headquarters Building of the Holy House of Mercy

Headquarters Building of the Municipal Affairs Bureau

).

The selection of architectural materials adheres to the principles of adapting to local conditions and utilising locally sourced resources, primarily comprising blue bricks, grey tiles, red tiles, timber, stone, and coloured glazed bricks/tiles. Blue bricks are the most widely used material, primarily employed for building exteriors, floor paving, and load-bearing structures in Western-style buildings. Grey tiles, commonly found on Chinese-style roofs, are fired from local clay. Red tiles serve as the primary material for Western style pitched roofs, predominantly used on Western residences and public buildings. Timber is employed in Chinese timber-frame structures such as beams, columns, and purlins, as well as for doors, windows, and certain decorative components. Stone typically functions as a stable material for plinths, column bases, steps, significant facades, and defensive structures. Glazed bricks/tiles are distinctive wall cladding materials in Western architecture, serving both decorative and protective functions.

Architectural colour schemes predominantly feature traditional Chinese blue-grey tones and Portuguese-inspired warm hues. The Chinese blue-grey palette primarily comprises pale shades such as blue-grey and white and light colours, serving as an exemplary embodiment of the nation’s refined yet unadorned traditional aesthetic sensibilities. Western architectural colours, conversely, are brighter, frequently employing warm reds, yellows, greens, and blues to emphasise contrast and symbolism. This results in a more vivid overall palette, creating a harmonious blend of the understated elegance of traditional Chinese aesthetics and the rich vibrancy of Western hues.

Decorative forms are chiefly categorised as lime sculpting, wood carving, stone carving, brick carving, iron art, painted decoration, and glazed tiles. Lime sculpting, wood carving, stone carving, and brick carving represent commonly employed decorative styles in Chinese architecture, characterised by intricate and complex craftsmanship. Gray plastic is primarily applied to higher-grade Chinese structures. Iron arches, painted decorations, and glazed tiles are frequently employed in Western-style architecture. Their decorative motifs tend towards simplicity and orderly arrangement, commonly appearing on church exterior murals, staircase facades, and interior wainscoting. Regarding decorative themes, Chinese decorative motifs predominantly feature auspicious motifs symbolising fortune, prosperity, longevity, and joy, alongside moral teachings from historical narratives, reflecting traditional cultural values, beliefs, and aesthetics. Western decorative motifs, conversely, often incorporate religious symbols, geometric patterns, and natural motifs, reflecting religious faith, familial identity, classical revivalist trends, and decorative tastes.

5.2. Identification Results of Intangible Cultural Genes

The intangible cultural genes of the Historic Centre of Macao are categorised into indigenous religion genes, vernacular art genes, and vernacular traditions genes. The belief types and activities, artistic forms including music, dance, and techniques, as well as folk festivals and distinctive cuisine identified through documentary research and field investigation are synthesized (

Table 4. Identification results of intangible cultural genes in the Historic Centre of Macao.

Major Categories

Indigenous Religion Genes

Subcategory

Religion Category

Religions Category

Identification Results

Ancestral religions

Local religions

Western religions

Parade activities

Ancestor worship activities

Sacrificial activities

Religious activities

Representative Diagrams

Major Categories

Vernacular Art Genes

Subcategory

Music

Dance

Technique

Identification Results

Religious sacred music system

Festive folk music

Drama accompaniment music

Worship dance

Festival ceremonial dances

Dramatic narrative dances

The craft of divine incense production

The art of Guangzhou embroidery

The creation of commemorative gifts

Representative Diagrams

Major Categories

Vernacular Traditions Genes

Subcategory

Folk Festivals

Distinctive Cuisine

Identification Results

Seasonal folk festivals

Western folk art festivals

Intangible cultural heritage cuisine

Festival cuisine

Daily cuisine

Representative Diagrams

).

5.2.1. Indigenous Religion Gene

The religion category within the Historic Centre of Macao exhibits a characteristic diversity, primarily encompassing ancestral religions, indigenous religions and Western religions. Ancestral beliefs involve local clans establishing ancestral halls or dedicated spaces within family residences for regular ancestral rites, thereby fostering a sense of kinship among clan members. Indigenous religions involve the veneration of traditional Chinese mythological figures to address diverse life needs, such as the belief in Mazu, the Earth God, Guan Yu, and Nezha. Western beliefs are represented by Catholicism.

This pluralistic faith landscape has given rise to a diverse religions category, categorised into four types: parade activities, ancestor worship activities, sacrificial activities, and religious activities. These activities both perpetuate traditional religious culture and strengthen community cohesion. Procession activities typically occur during specific festivals, categorised as Catholic processions and indigenous deity parades. Ancestor worship ceremonies are regularly conducted by various clans. Sacrificial rites involve offering sacrifices and prayers to indigenous folk deities such as Mazu and Guan Yu. Religious activities are usually held periodically or on designated religious holy days.

5.2.2. Vernacular Art Genes

Macau’s vernacular artistic heritage encompasses music, dance, and technique. Music culture is primarily characterised by a religious sacred music system, festive folk music, and drama accompaniment music. Religious sacred music systems are solemn and dignified, serving specific religious ceremonies. Festive folk music, exemplified by Cantonese suona, accompanies traditional ceremonies such as weddings and funerals. Dramatic accompaniment music supports opera performances with richly varied melodies closely synchronised to dramatic action. Macau’s dances are categorised into worship dances associated with faith, festive ceremonial dances embodying exorcism and blessings, and dramatic narrative dances blending theatrical plots with choreography. The techniques encompass the craft of divine incense production, the art of Guangzhou embroidery, and the creation of commemorative gifts. These crafts possess not only practical utility but also profound cultural significance and exquisite technical skill.

5.2.3. Vernacular Traditions Genes

Vernacular traditions genes are primarily embodied in folk festivals and distinctive cuisine. These encompass seasonal folk celebrations rooted in Chinese traditions, such as the Festival of the Drunken Dragon, Belief and Customs of A-Ma, Mid-Autumn Festival, and Spring Festival, alongside Western folk-art festivals featuring local cultural activities like the Macau Grand Prix and the Macau International Fireworks Display Contest. These festivities both perpetuate traditional cultural practices and incorporate multicultural elements, forming an integral part of Macao’s social fabric and serving as vital expressions of cultural identity and emotional resonance for its residents. Macao’s distinctive cuisine encompasses intangible cultural heritage cuisine, festival cuisine, and daily cuisine, characterised by a fusion of Eastern and Western flavours with a predominantly sweet profile. Its diverse array carries unique cultural memories and reflects distinct lifestyle customs.

6. Evaluation Results

Based on the questionnaire survey conducted among tourists, residents, and third-party representatives, and following the AHP-fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method described in Section 4.3.2, the recognition scores for each cultural gene indicator were calculated through multi-level fuzzy synthesis operations. The resulting weights and scores for the three stakeholder groups are presented.

By analysing the recognition ratings of various cultural genes within the Historic Centre of Macao as assessed by visitors, residents, and third-party representatives, respectively, the following conclusions were drawn (

Table 5. Assessment results for recognition of cultural genes in the Historic Centre of Macao (tourists).

General Criterion Layer	Score	Primary Indicator	Weight	Score	Second-Level Indicator	Weight	Score
Recognition of Cultural Heritage in the Historic Centre of Macao (Visitors)	73.40	A Architectural Function	0.1905	71.67	A1 Residential	0.2524	73.54
					A2 Commercial	0.1698	71.85
					A3 Military	0.1909	69.77
					A4 Political	0.2452	70.81
					A5 Culture and Education	0.1418	72.19
		B Architectural Structure	0.1479	66.23	B1 Roof Shapes	0.1773	60.11
					B2 Gable Elevation	0.2557	66.28
					B3 Facade Doors and Windows	0.3287	69.99
					B4 Structural Forms	0.2383	65.56
		C Architectural Ornamentation	0.1480	76.71	C1 Architectural Materials	0.2284	68.96
					C2 Architectural Colour	0.3100	78.82
					C3 Decorative Forms	0.4616	79.12
		D Indigenous Religion Gene	0.1952	71.59	D1 Religion Category	0.6316	71.16
					D2 Religious Activities	0.3684	72.34
		E Vernacular Art Genes	0.1405	77.39	E1 Music	0.2723	70.26
					E2 Dance	0.2748	73.13
					E3 Technique	0.4529	84.26
		F Vernacular Traditions Genes	0.1780	77.30	F1 Folk Festivals	0.5217	69.67
					F2 Distinctive Cuisine	0.4783	85.63

,

Table 6. Assessment results for recognition of cultural genes in the Historic Centre of Macao (residents).

General Criterion Layer	Score	Primary Indicator	Weight	Score	Second-Level Indicator	Weight	Score
Recognition of Cultural Heritage in the Historic Centre of Macao (Residents)	75.90	A Architectural Function	0.1905	74.14	A1 Residential	0.2524	77.47
					A2 Commercial	0.1698	72.56
					A3 Military	0.1909	70.61
					A4 Political	0.2452	73.15
					A5 Culture and Education	0.1418	76.57
		B Architectural Structure	0.1479	67.64	B1 Roof Shapes	0.1773	68.12
					B2 Gable Elevation	0.2557	68.84
					B3 Facade Doors and Windows	0.3287	70.34
					B4 Structural Forms	0.2383	62.26
		C Architectural Ornamentation	0.1480	75.04	C1 Architectural Materials	0.2284	67.71
					C2 Architectural Colour	0.3100	75.66
					C3 Decorative Forms	0.4616	78.25
		D Indigenous Religion Gene	0.1952	78.05	D1 Religion Category	0.6316	77.27
					D2 Religious Activities	0.3684	79.38
		E Vernacular Art Genes	0.1405	78.43	E1 Music	0.2723	75.63
					E2 Dance	0.2748	74.19
					E3 Technique	0.4529	82.68
		F Vernacular Traditions Genes	0.1780	81.04	F1 Folk Festivals	0.5217	79.66
					F2 Distinctive Cuisine	0.4783	82.54

and

Table 7. Assessment results for recognition of cultural genes in the Historic Centre of Macao (third-party representative).

General Criterion Layer	Score	Primary Indicator	Weight	Score	Second-Level Indicator	Weight	Score
Recognition of Cultural Heritage in the Historic Centre of Macao (Third-Party Representative)	75.05	A Architectural Function	0.1905	74.26	A1 Residential	0.2524	71.23
					A2 Commercial	0.1698	73.63
					A3 Military	0.1909	73.49
					A4 Political	0.2452	75.61
					A5 Culture and Education	0.1418	79.12
		B Architectural Structure	0.1479	69.74	B1 Roof Shapes	0.1773	66.53
					B2 Gable Elevation	0.2557	70.05
					B3 Facade Doors and Windows	0.3287	71.14
					B4 Structural Forms	0.2383	69.87
		C Architectural Ornamentation	0.1480	72.60	C1 Architectural Materials	0.2284	70.08
					C2 Architectural Colour	0.3100	72.94
					C3 Decorative Forms	0.4616	73.62
		D Indigenous Religion Gene	0.1952	75.93	D1 Religion Category	0.6316	76.56
					D2 Religious Activities	0.3684	74.86
		E Vernacular Art Genes	0.1405	78.57	E1 Music	0.2723	76.73
					E2 Dance	0.2748	78.58
					E3 Technique	0.4529	79.67
		F Vernacular Traditions Genes	0.1780	78.62	F1 Folk Festivals	0.5217	76.73
					F2 Distinctive Cuisine	0.4783	80.68

). Regarding the overall criterion scores, visitors’ recognition of the cultural genes in the Historic Centre of Macao scored 73.40, residents’ recognition scored 75.90, and third-party representatives’ recognition scored 75.05. Overall, the recognition levels of all three groups towards Macao’s cultural genes were moderate, with visitors’ scores the lowest.

Specifically, regarding Architectural Function Genes (A), visitors rated this indicator at 71.67, residents at 74.14, and third-party representatives at 74.26. Third-party representatives demonstrated the highest level of professionalism in assessing architectural function, achieving the highest overall scores. They notably outperformed others in A5 (Culture and Education) (79.12) and A4 (Political) (75.61), consistent with their focus on historical value and public utility. Residents demonstrated considerably higher recognition of A1 Residential Buildings (77.47) than tourists (73.54) or third-party representatives (71.23), vividly illustrating the unique emotional resonance of “home” as a living space. Tourists scored the lowest across all sub-items, particularly for A3 Military Buildings (69.77), indicating that the cultural value of such functions is difficult to perceive effectively during short-term tourism.

Regarding Architectural Structure Genes (B), this dimension received the lowest scores from tourists, with an overall rating of merely 66.23. Among its sub-indicators, B1 Roof Shapes (60.11) scored the lowest, indicating that the subtleties of structural design and craftsmanship are most easily overlooked during fleeting visits. Third-party representatives demonstrated comprehensive superiority in structural recognition, reflecting their professional expertise. Particularly in B4 Structural Forms (69.87), third-party representatives scored significantly higher than both residents (62.26) and tourists (65.56). Residents’ lower recognition of B4 Structural Forms may relate to critical acknowledgement of practical issues such as structural ageing and inconvenience. Gable elevations and façade doors and windows, being more visually expressive, received relatively moderate evaluations with smaller inter-group differences.

Regarding Architectural Ornamentation Genes (C), this was the sole dimension where tourists’ overall scores surpassed both residents and third-party representatives. They particularly awarded exceptionally high marks to Decorative Forms C3 (79.12) and Architectural Colour C2 (78.82). This indicates that external, visually immediate decorative elements are most readily perceived and appreciated by visitors. Third-party representatives scored relatively conservatively in this dimension, likely viewing ornamentation through a professional conservation lens that perceives ageing or restoration issues. This pattern aligns with the role of tourists as “external observers” [86] who construct their cultural identity primarily through fleeting, intuitive sensory experiences—such as ornamentation and cuisine—rather than through deeper structural or ritual dimensions. This results in relatively low recognition across numerous aspects [87].

Regarding Indigenous Religion Genes (D), residents demonstrated the strongest sense of identification within the beliefs dimension, achieving the highest overall score (78.05) and sub-item scores, particularly for D2 Religious Activities (79.38). This profoundly reflects how belief observances have become integrated into their daily lives. Visitors expressed the weakest identification with this aspect, finding the activities intriguing yet finding it challenging to grasp their cultural significance. Third-party representatives showed recognition of D1 Religion Category (76.56) comparable to residents, though a gap emerged in participation and identification with D2 Religious Activities (74.86). These results illustrate the role of residents as “internal bearers” of cultural identity, grounding their recognition in long-term daily practices and collective memory—factors that are less accessible to temporary visitors or even to professionally trained but emotionally distanced experts. This reflects their role as bearers and enduring experiencers of local culture, fostering a more profound and stable identification with its cultural DNA [88,89].

Regarding Vernacular Art Genes (E), all three groups’ evaluations were remarkably consistent, each exceeding 77 points, indicating widespread appreciation for Macao’s artistic and cultural legacy. Third-party representatives demonstrated slightly higher recognition (78.57), reflecting their professional affirmation of local artistic value. Tourists exhibited exceptionally high recognition for the E3 Technique (84.26), surpassing both residents and third-party representatives. This stems from technique products being frequently encountered and consumed as tourist souvenirs, offering the most direct experiential engagement. Conversely, recognition levels for performance arts like E1 Music (70.26) and E2 Dance (73.13), which require specific occasions and timeframes for appreciation, were notably lower among tourists. This directly correlates with their transient, context-specific tourism patterns. Third-party representatives, acting as “professional interpreters,” base their recognition on objective knowledge and value judgements, such as architectural function and structure [90]. Third-party representatives’ recognition falls between these two groups, slightly below that of residents, indicating that while their professional perspective offers insight, there remains a subtle gap in the emotional identification closely tied to lived experience compared to local residents [91].

Regarding Vernacular Traditions Genes (F), residents scored highly at 81.04—one of the highest scores across all groups for primary indicators. This robustly demonstrates folk culture’s centrality as a living component of community life, with residents serving as its primary custodians and transmitters. Tourist recognition exhibits significant internal variation. Their endorsement of F2 Distinctive Cuisine (85.63) ranks the highest across all groups and indicators, indicating that “food” serves as the most immediate and compelling cultural medium within the tourism experience. Conversely, their recognition of F1 Folk Festivals (69.67) remains notably low, attributable to the time-bound nature of such events and their limited participatory formats, which hinder in-depth engagement during brief itineraries. Third-party representatives’ overall recognition of folk characteristics (78.62) falls between that of residents and tourists. This reflects a rational observer’s perspective. Their evaluations of F2 Distinctive Cuisine (80.68) and F1 Folk Festivals (76.73) are relatively positive, though they do not reach the emotional resonance rooted in daily life experienced by residents.

Comparative analysis of cultural heritage recognition among tourists, residents, and third-party representatives reveals distinct differences across indicators due to varying perspectives, starting points, and levels of familiarity. Tourists’ limited exposure to overall cultural characteristics—constrained by time and activity restrictions—results in relatively lower recognition. Their appreciation centres on tangible elements such as architectural ornamentation genes (C), distinctive cuisine (F2), and technique (E3). Conversely, recognition is lowest for aspects requiring deeper understanding, such as architectural structure genes (B) and indigenous religion genes (D). Residents, having lived locally long-term, possess deeper cultural understanding and experience, resulting in higher recognition levels. As the cultural core, they demonstrate the strongest identification with indigenous religion genes (D) and vernacular traditions genes (F). However, they adopt a more cautious stance towards architectural structural forms (B4) due to their practical usage. Third-party representatives, drawing upon professional perspectives and comprehensive research, also demonstrate relatively high recognition levels. Their highest recognition lies in objectively measurable domains such as architectural function genes (A) and structure genes (B). Nevertheless, their recognition of subjective experiences and practices—such as architectural ornamentation genes (C) and religious activities (D2)—fall below that of local residents.

Specific indicators reveal significant divergence among groups concerning residential, military, political, cultural, and educational types; roof shapes; belief categories; religious activities; music; dance; and folk festivals. Conversely, differences are relatively minor regarding commercial buildings, façade doors and windows, and architectural materials. Collectively, these findings confirm that cultural identity is neither singular nor homogeneous; rather, it is jointly constructed by diverse social groups based on their respective experiences and positions. Tourists, as external observers, residents as internal bearers, and third-party representatives as professional interpreters each contribute a distinct, partial perspective. This divergence in recognition patterns demonstrates that any singular narrative regarding cultural heritage value is incomplete; multiple perspectives must be incorporated [92,93].

These differences reflect the distinct characteristics and emphases of various groups in their recognition of the cultural genes of the Historic Centre of Macao, providing valuable reference for the further preservation and development of its cultural heritage.

7. Discussion

7.1. Influencing Factors and Future Development Strategies

Field research indicates four main factors contributing to the observed recognition patterns:

• Functional alienation is prevalent in the development of commercial and military buildings, where the original functions of some historic structures have been appropriated for new purposes unrelated to their historical context. This blurs or even severs the cultural identity of the buildings. For instance, the military defensive function of Macau’s St. Tiago da Barra Fortress has been entirely replaced by commercial accommodation. As Aldo Rossi observed in The Architecture of the City, urban artifacts carry meaning through the continuity of function and form, yet functions may transform over time while the artifact retains its identity [94]. This resonates with our finding: the fortress’s original defensive function—now replaced—exhibits diminished cultural recognition (tourist score: 69.77). Such functional alienation severs the building’s connection to its historical narrative, supporting Rossi’s thesis that the persistence of urban artifacts requires a careful negotiation between original purpose and contemporary use. Furthermore, while residential and political buildings retain their original functions, their excessive obsolescence prevents effective alignment with contemporary societal needs. This misalignment in functional positioning severs the buildings’ connection to their historical narratives, making it difficult for visitors to perceive their original cultural value. Residents, meanwhile, experience diminished identification due to the disconnect between the buildings’ functions and modern lifestyles.
• Macau’s historic buildings face structural preservation challenges. On one hand, damage to original structures is particularly pronounced in timber-framed buildings, manifesting as aged timber beams, insect infestation, and moisture-induced structural weakening. For instance, St. Augustine’s Church suffered a partial roof collapse due to aged timber beams and prolonged torrential rainfall. On the other hand, while human-induced damage is partially regulated by legislation, incidents persist. For instance, the Lou Kau Mansion sustained minor damage when its exterior wall collapsed during the demolition of an adjacent old building. Such structural harm not only compromises building safety but also undermines the integrity of the architectural heritage, diminishing public recognition.
• Material degradation and visual integrity issues significantly diminish the buildings’ most visible character, weakening their cultural appeal to all groups, particularly visitors who rely on visual experience. For instance, the blue bricks on the exterior walls of buildings like the Lou Kau Mansion and Mandarin’s House exhibit powdering, salt efflorescence, and surface flaking. Furthermore, some structures have been improperly treated during repairs with modern materials such as cement mortar render or plastic windows, disrupting the visual continuity of the facades. The vibrantly coloured architectural paintings and wall coatings have faded and lost their lustre due to climatic and temporal influences, with details becoming indistinct. Furthermore, decorative elements such as brick carvings, wood carvings, and Western-style stone mouldings and glazed bricks on façades have suffered from mould, insect infestation, and damage, severely impairing the buildings’ artistic expressiveness and capacity for cultural narration.
• Intangible heritage transmission challenges face Macau’s intangible cultural heritage in the modernisation process, including simplified transmission rituals, lost skills, and weakened identity. This directly undermines residents’ foundational sense of cultural belonging as active participants and hinders visitors’ ability to experience living cultural atmospheres. Firstly, indigenous religion systems face the predicament of ritual simplification due to spatial compression. Taking the Belief and Customs of Chu Tai Sin as an example, its traditional sacrificial sites have seen diminished functionality due to urban development, while the faith community has become increasingly dispersed through population migration. The younger generation’s identification with traditional beliefs continues to decline. Concurrently, the frequency of related sacrificial rituals has sharply decreased, and their procedures have been simplified, leading to a continuous weakening of the cultural expression of the faith and community cohesion. Secondly, the vernacular art gene faces the crisis of skill extinction due to generational gaps in transmission. Traditional crafts such as the dragon dance techniques of the Festival of the Drunken Dragon confront the stark realities of ageing practitioners and insufficient youth participation. Thirdly, the vernacular traditions genes suffer from weak identification stemming from formalistic traditions. While certain traditional festivals persist, their outdated formats fail to resonate with contemporary aesthetics and lifestyles, resulting in low engagement among younger generations.

Based on the evaluation findings and field research, the following conservation strategies are proposed:

• Activation Strategy for Strengths Genes: For high-identity elements (scores > 70), such as distinctive cuisine, technique, and architectural ornamentation genes, establish multi-stakeholder collaboration mechanisms to drive cultural-tourism integration and value transformation. Transform tangible cultural elements into immersive experiences by creating intangible cultural heritage culinary routes, artisan workshop spaces, and themed trails using augmented reality (AR) technology, thereby significantly enhancing visitor engagement. Concurrently, establish incentive mechanisms for inheritors to encourage local residents—particularly artisans—to participate in cultural product development, achieving mutual benefits in cultural preservation and economic returns. Expert teams shall oversee cultural content excavation and technical standard formulation to ensure professional and authentic revitalisation processes.
• General Heritage Cultivation Strategy: For heritage elements with moderate recognition scores (50–70), such as architectural function genes, local belief genes, and folk festivals, adopt a dual approach of functional revitalisation and cultural reconstruction. Establish community deliberation platforms to guide residents in updating the functions of historic buildings and introducing new uses, such as converting commercial structures into community spaces like cultural markets. Innovate festival event formats by creating annual cultural calendars and incorporating interactive experiences to enhance appeal among younger demographics. Expert teams must ensure revitalisation adheres to heritage conservation standards, striking a balance between traditional continuity and contemporary expression.
• Endangered Genes Rescue Strategy: For low-identity heritage elements such as architectural ornamentation genes (scores < 50), implement measures combining technical conservation with systematic dissemination. Professional teams shall establish digital archives using technologies such as 3D laser scanning to provide data support for subsequent restoration. Visualisation tools—including structural analysis animations and craftsmanship documentaries—shall translate specialised knowledge into accessible public content. Concurrently, establish resident-participatory routine monitoring mechanisms to form a long-term conservation system integrating professional preservation with community stewardship.

7.2. Innovation Points

Compared to previous studies, this research achieves a systematic and comprehensive identification of cultural gene elements within the Historic Centre of Macao. Prior studies often focused on individual landmark buildings or specific categories of tangible heritage, resulting in relatively narrow identification criteria. This study constructs a comprehensive identification framework encompassing both architectural and intangible cultural heritage, enabling systematic capture and holistic analysis of both tangible and intangible cultural genes within the Historic Centre. This identification methodology overcomes the fragmented limitations of prior work, presenting a more complete picture of the complex interplay between Chinese and Western cultures. It also lays the groundwork for a deeper understanding of the symbiotic relationships between various cultural elements, thereby revealing their intrinsic connections and holistic value more comprehensively.

Secondly, this study incorporates a multi-stakeholder evaluation perspective. Unlike previous research centred on singular groups (such as experts or administrators), it synthesises feedback from visitors, residents, and third-party representatives to establish a multidimensional, multi-perspective cultural gene recognition assessment system. This design overcomes potential recognition biases inherent in single-group evaluations, ensuring the recognition assessment of diverse cultural elements. This ensures rigour and a scientific basis for future development decisions concerning the Historic Centre of Macao, more comprehensively reflecting the value recognition and conservation needs of cultural genes. It enables precise identification of the survival status and development potential of different cultural elements within the current social context, thereby providing a more scientific and democratic basis for subsequent conservation and utilisation strategies. Specifically, the evaluation outcomes clearly distinguish two categories requiring differentiated approaches: Firstly, “advantageous genes” possessing broad societal recognition and significant cultural dissemination power should be prioritised for revitalisation and utilisation, driving their creative transformation and innovative development. The second category comprises “endangered genes” that have low recognition and face transmission challenges, necessitating emergency documentation and preventive conservation strategies—such as establishing digital archives and supporting transmission entities—to ensure the sustainable continuity of cultural gene lineages. This approach transforms generalised conservation and development decisions into evidence-based, prioritised precision governance pathways, significantly enhancing the scientific rigour and operational feasibility of cultural heritage strategy formulation.

7.3. Limitations

This study has limitations in the following aspects:

Research Subject: Constrained by funding and time, this study focused solely on the Historic Centre of Macao, precluding comparative analysis across broader geographical contexts. Future research should explore cross-cultural adaptability by selecting multiple representative historic districts for comparative analysis.

Methodology: This study primarily employed questionnaires, which carry inherent limitations. Future research may consider adopting more diverse and innovative approaches, such as big data analysis, web text mining, and visual perception experiments. Integrating multimodal data—including images and videos—could yield richer, more objective research data, thereby enhancing the comprehensiveness and accuracy of conclusions.

Research Design: The one-off questionnaire captured only the cultural identity assessments of visitors, residents, and third-party representatives at a specific point in time. This design fails to reflect how cultural identity and preservation demands evolve over time, influenced by the loss or development of cultural elements, shifts in the social environment, and changes in people’s values. Future research may adopt longitudinal tracking designs, conducting multiple surveys of the same cohort or following repeat visitors and long-term residents to reveal dynamic patterns in cultural identity recognition and evaluation. This would provide more forward-looking strategic recommendations for the historic district’s long-term conservation and development while enhancing the study’s dynamism.

8. Conclusions

This study systematically identified the cultural genes of the Historic Centre of Macao and evaluated their recognition across multiple stakeholder groups. The main findings are summarized as follows.

First, a dual-strand identification framework was established, yielding six cultural gene factors across tangible and intangible dimensions—architectural function, structure, and ornamentation on the tangible side, and local belief, art, and vernacular traditions on the intangible side—further specified into fifteen factor indicators.

Second, recognition scores were calculated for tourists (73.40), residents (75.90), and third-party representatives (75.05), indicating moderate overall recognition with visitors scoring the lowest. Residents showed the strongest identification with local belief genes (78.05) and vernacular traditions genes (81.04); tourists favoured tangible elements such as architectural ornamentation (76.71), distinctive cuisine (85.63), and traditional techniques (84.26), while showing weakest recognition for architectural structure genes (66.23); and third-party representatives scored highest in objectively measurable domains such as architectural function (74.26) and structure (69.74).

Third, four underlying factors affecting recognition were identified—functional alienation, structural preservation challenges, material degradation, and intangible heritage transmission challenges—leading to three corresponding conservation strategies: activation for high-identity genes (scores > 70), cultivation for moderate-identity genes (50–70), and rescue for low-identity genes (<70).

These findings confirm the study’s central hypothesis: that cultural identity in historic districts is neither singular nor homogeneous, but is jointly constructed by diverse stakeholder groups based on their distinct experiences and positions. The systematic differences observed among tourists, residents, and third-party representatives validate the necessity of a multi-stakeholder evaluation approach for evidence-based heritage conservation.

The principal contributions of this study lie in two aspects. On one hand, it addresses previous research shortcomings by systematically integrating cultural elements, achieving a holistic grasp of heritage value. On the other hand, it overcomes the limitations of single-group evaluation by introducing a multi-group recognition assessment system. This provides more comprehensive, scientific, and democratic decision-making support for formulating cultural heritage conservation and transmission strategies, driving the shift in cultural heritage management from empirical judgment to empirical analysis.