A Method for Studying Building Color Harmony in Coastal Historic and Cultural Districts: A Case Study of Mojiko, Japan
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
2.2. Data Acquisition and Processing
2.3. Subjective Evaluation Method of Building Color Harmony Degree
2.4. Building Façades Primary Color Extraction
2.5. Objective BCHD Calculation Method
3. Results
3.1. BCHD Subjective Evaluation
3.1.1. Comparison of BCHD Subjective Evaluation Between High Sample and Low Sample
3.1.2. Street BCHD Subjective Evaluation Analysis
3.1.3. Positively Skewed Distribution
3.1.4. Negative Skewed Distribution
3.2. Analysis of Building Color Measurement
3.2.1. Building Color Hue, Brightness, and Saturation Analysis
3.2.2. Analysis of Color Warmth and Coldness of Street Buildings
3.3. Analysis of Objective BCHD
4. Discussion
4.1. Street Color Harmony
4.2. BCHD in the Coastal Cultural District
4.3. The Relationship Between the Color Combination of the Building and the Graph
5. Limitation
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BCHD | Building color harmony degree |
IQR | Interquartile Range |
Appendix A
Grade | Building Number |
---|---|
High BCHD (0.204~0.911) | E-G13 & E-G14, E-G5 & E-G6, N-F13 & N-F14, W-J1 & W-J2, W-G2 & W-G3, E-G6 & E-G7, E-J2 & E-J3, E-G9 & E-G10, W-C5 & W-C6, W-C8 & W-C9, E-C2 & E-C3, S-A11 & S-A12, N-H10 & N-H11, E-G7 & E-G8, E-E1 & E-E2, N-F12 & N-F13, S-A1 & S-A2, E-J3 & E-J4, W-J3 & W-J4, E-I1 & E-I2, N-C1 & N-C2, S-E3 & S-E4, W-G7 & W-G8, N-F19 & N-F20, N-D10 & N-D11, E-J5 & E-J6, N-F18 & N-F19, E-J4 & E-J5, S-E10 & S-E11, N-H15 & N-H16, E-C9 & E-C10, N-F20 & N-F21, N-F1 & N-F2, E-C4 & E-C5, E-C3 & E-C4, S-B11 & S-B12, E-C10 & E-C11, S-A3 & S-A4, W-C10 & W-C11, N-F17 & N-F18, W-G8 & W-G9, N-F6 & N-F7, E-C5 & E-C6, S-B10 & S-B11, E-J9 & E-J10, E-C1 & E-C2, E-J1 & E-J2, W-J10 & W-J11, W-G5 & W-G6, W-G10 & W-G11, N-D1 & N-D2, S-A2 & S-A3. |
Normal BCHD (−0.259~0.204) | N-H16 & N-H17, S-C2 & S-C3, E-C8 & E-C9, N-D2 & N-D3, W-J8 & W-J9, E-G8 & E-G9, N-H17 & N-H18, W-J9 & W-J10, N-F2 & N-F3, W-I2 & W-I3, W-C1 & W-C2, E-C6 & E-C7, S-D2 & S-D3, W-G6 & W-G7, W-I1 & W-I2, N-C2 & N-C3, N-F7 & N-F8, W-G3 & W-G4, N-H14 & N-H15, S-B4 & S-B5, E-I2 & E-I3, N-H2 & N-H3, E-G4 & E-G5, S-D1 & S-D2, N-H8 & N-H9, S-A4 & S-A5, S-A12 & S-A13, S-B6 & S-B7, W-C3 & W-C4, E-G11 & E-G12, S-A7 & S-A8, S-H1 & S-H2, N-F14 & N-F15, N-H1 & N-H2, N-F8 & N-F9, N-H18 & W-H1, N-F3 & N-F4, E-J11 & E-J12, N-F4 & N-F5, N-F9 & N-F10, W-J6 & W-J7, W-J2 & W-J3, N-D4 & N-D5, S-C4 & S-C5, W-C6 & W-C7, N-H11 & N-H12, W-J4 & W-J5, N-D6 & N-D7, S-A8 & S-A9, N-D5 & N-D6, N-D3 & N-D4, W-C7 & W-C8, N-D8 & N-D9, E-G2 & E-G3, N-H4 & N-H5, W-C11 & W-C12, N-F5 & N-F6, E-J6 & E-J7, E-J12 & E-J13, S-B1 & S-B2, W-I4 & W-I5, E-C7 & E-C8, E-G1 & E-G2. |
Low BCHD (−1.198~−0.260) | S-B12 & S-B13, S-B5 & S-B6, W-C4 & W-C5, S-B3 & S-B4, N-F11 & N-F12, N-F10 & N-F11, N-H5 & N-H6, S-A10 & S-A11, N-H7 & N-H8, W-I6 & W-I7, S-B7 & S-B8, S-A9 & S-A10, S-C1 & S-C2, W-G4 & W-G5, N-H12 & N-H13, S-E8 & S-E9, S-B2 & S-B3, N-E1 & N-E2, N-F15 & N-F16, S-E5 & S-E6, W-C9 & W-C10, N-D9 & N-D10, S-E1 & S-E2, N-E2 & N-E3, E-J8 & E-J9, S-B13 & S-B14, N-E4 & N-E5, W-G1 & W-G2, W-C12 & W-C13, N-H9 & N-H10, W-J5 & W-J6, S-A6 & S-A7, S-B14 & S-B15, S-E9 & S-E10, E-G12 & E-G13, E-I4 & E-I5, N-E4 & N-E6, S-A5 & S-A6, N-H3 & N-H4, S-B9 & S-B10, N-F16 & N-F17, W-I7 & W-I8. |
Grade | Building Number |
---|---|
High BCHD (0.770~1.000) | W-C1 & W-C2, N-F8 & N-F9, W-C9 & W-C10, S-C2 & S-C3, W-C3 & W-C4, W-G8 & W-G9, N-F19 & N-F20, E-G13 & E-G14, S-A7 & S-A8, W-G4 & W-G5, E-J2 & E-J3, E-C3 & E-C4, W-C6 & W-C7, S-B10 & S-B11, W-J3 & W-J4, N-F2 & N-F3, S-E5 & S-E6, N-H14 & N-H15, W-J1 & W-J2, E-G9 & E-G10, E-I1 & E-I2, E-J4 & E-J5, E-E1 & E-E2, N-H9 & N-H10, S-E10 & S-E11, N-F14 & N-F15, N-D1 & N-D2, W-J10 & W-J11, S-A10 & S-A11, S-A2 & S-A3, S-C4 & S-C5, S-B11 & S-B12, W-C4 & W-C5, S-B6 & S-B7, N-F20 & N-F21, W-J9 & W-J10, E-J9 & E-J10, W-C5 & W-C6, S-D1 & S-D2, N-F10 & N-F11, W-J4 & W-J5, N-F13 & N-F14, E-G2 & E-G3, W-J6 & W-J7, N-F15 & N-F16, S-H1 & S-H2, E-C2 & E-C3, W-G10 & W-G11, W-G7 & W-G8, E-J8 & E-J9, N-H18 & W-H1, E-J5 & E-J6, S-D2 & S-D3, S-A1 & S-A2, N-F5 & N-F6, S-A4 & S-A5, E-J11 & E-J12, E-C4 & E-C5, E-C5 & E-C6, S-B4 & S-B5, N-F7 & N-F8, N-F12 & N-F13, S-B2 & S-B3, W-J8 & W-J9, W-G3 & W-G4, S-E9 & S-E10, E-I4 & E-I5, N-F3 & N-F4, S-B1 & S-B2, W-J2 & W-J3 |
Normal BCHD (0.479~0.770) | N-D2 & N-D3, N-F11 & N-F12, E-G1 & E-G2, E-G8 & E-G9, W-J5 & W-J6, N-C1 & N-C2, W-C12 & W-C13, N-F1 & N-F2, N-H15 & N-H16, E-G6 & E-G7, N-H17 & N-H18, S-A11 & S-A12, S-B12 & S-B13, E-J6 & E-J7, N-H4 & N-H5, S-A9 & S-A10, N-D9 & N-D10, S-E3 & S-E4, N-D5 & N-D6, E-C9 & E-C10, N-H7 & N-H8, E-J1 & E-J2, N-H11 & N-H12, E-C10 & E-C11, E-J12 & E-J13, E-G7 & E-G8, N-H16 & N-H17, W-I2 & W-I3, N-F16 & N-F17, N-C2 & N-C3, E-G4 & E-G5, W-C10 & W-C11, N-F17 & N-F18, S-B3 & S-B4, E-C6 & E-C7, E-J3 & E-J4, S-A12 & S-A13, N-H3 & N-H4, S-A3 & S-A4, E-C1 & E-C2, S-B5 & S-B6, W-C7 & W-C8, N-D4 & N-D5, N-H10 & N-H11, N-H1 & N-H2, N-F9 & N-F10, E-G11 & E-G12, W-G6 & W-G7, W-I7 & W-I8, N-H8 & N-H9, N-F4 & N-F5, E-G12 & E-G13, S-C1 & S-C2, E-I2 & E-I3, W-G5 & W-G6, N-D10 & N-D11, N-F18 & N-F19 |
Low BCHD (0.000~0.490) | N-D8 & N-D9, N-H12 & N-H13, E-G5 & E-G6, W-C8 & W-C9, W-C11 & W-C12, N-D6 & N-D7, S-B7 & S-B8, N-H5 & N-H6, S-B13 & S-B14, S-E1 & S-E2, N-E4 & N-E5, N-E2 & N-E3, N-E4 & N-E6, E-C7 & E-C8, N-D3 & N-D4, S-A5 & S-A6, N-E1 & N-E2, S-A6 & S-A7, S-E8 & S-E9, E-C8 & E-C9, W-I4 & W-I5, N-H2 & N-H3, W-G2 & W-G3, S-A8 & S-A9, W-G1 & W-G2, N-F6 & N-F7, S-B14 & S-B15, S-B9 & S-B10, W-I6 & W-I7, W-I1 & W-I2 |
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Years | Institutions/Scholars | Theory |
---|---|---|
1800 | Thomas Young | The three-color theory was proposed. The human eye can perceive three basic colors: red (R), green (G), and blue (B). This theory laid the foundation for later development. |
Before 1924 | CIE | Study on the standard colorimetry system. |
1931 | W. DTright & J. Guild | The CIE1931 standard colorimetric observer spectral tristimulus values were specified, the CIE standard colorimetric system was constructed, and the CIE1931 chromaticity diagram was drawn. |
1950 | American National Standards Institute | The Munsell Color System, the first international standard color system, was founded. It divides color into three dimensions: hue, brightness, and purity, and provides an important basis for color standardization and application [16]. |
1964 | W.S.Stiles, J.M. Bruch & N. I. Speranskaya | The CIE1964 supplementary colorimetric system and the corresponding chromaticity diagram were developed, which were widely used in the world for the calculation of chroma and color differences. |
1964 | CIE | The concept of three-dimensional space of uniform color space was proposed [17]. |
1976 | CIE | CIE1976 was formulated, and a new color difference formula CIELAB was proposed. Publication of CIE standard light source. |
Late 20th century | Color theories and models in digital image processing and computer graphics, such as RGB and CYK color models, provide an application platform for modern colorimetry. |
Research Perspective | Scholars | Content | Country |
---|---|---|---|
Geography and Culturology | Jean-Philippe Lenclos | Different geographical environments affect the formation and development of race, nation, customs, culture, and so on. These factors lead to different color expressions. | France |
Lois Swirnoff | The relationship between color selection and cultural characteristics. | United States | |
Gareth Doherty | The relationship between color and geographical location, spatiality, and built urban environment. | United States | |
Salman Hasanvand | The influence of color on urban space and the concept of readability. | United States | |
Kazuki Yoshida | Studied the relationship between landscape method and color. The relationship between color and spatial form, the importance of color background, color relevance, andcolor attractiveness level in planning; the role of color harmony theory in landscape planning and landscape diversion; and the phenomenon of color clustering and segmentation caused by color similarity and similarity were studied theoretically. | Japan | |
Kelvin John Lancaster | From the landscape level, it was proposed to display the color characteristics under the context. | United States | |
Sociology | Krisztina Fehrvary | Color reflects the material culture associated with the political and economic system. | United States |
Color and Environmental Science | Haroldting | The research involved building materials, historical buildings, and landscapes; light and environmental colors; color education; industrial colors; color formalism; environmental colors and light; color education; and research. | United States |
Edtavere | The background of color formation of historical buildings, color protection, and meditation. | United Kingdom | |
Color Psychology | Shigetoshi Kobayashi | The coordinate system of color image provides an effective method for studying color psychology and providing a color scheme in line with color psychology. | Japan |
Title 1 | Title 3 |
---|---|
Street A | Dairen St |
Street B | Nishikaigan St |
Street C | Nat’l Rte 3 |
Street D | Nat’l Rte 198 |
Street E | Kyuosakashosen St, Gas to St, Retro Central St |
Street F | Nat’l Rte 3 |
Street G | 1 Hamamachi |
Street H | Nat’l Rte 198 |
Street I | Oimatsu Park St |
Street J | Hamamachi 2 |
Hue Statistics | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
H | R | YR | Y | GY | G | BG | B | PB | P | PR | N |
number of samples | 33 | 96 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 18 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 36 |
Percentage | 16.8 | 48.7 | 2.0 | 1.5 | 0 | 0 | 9.1 | 1.5 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 18.4 |
Brightness statistics | |||||||||||
V | low brightness 0 < V ≤ 0.3 | Medium brightness 0.3 < V ≤ 0.7 | high brightness 0.7 < V ≤ 1 | ||||||||
number of samples | 58 | 101 | 38 | ||||||||
Percentage | 29.4 | 51.3 | 19.3 | ||||||||
Saturation statistics | |||||||||||
C | low saturation 0 < C ≤ 0.3 | Medium saturation 0.3 < C ≤ 0.7 | high saturation 0.7 < C ≤ 1 | ||||||||
number of samples | 143 | 45 | 9 | ||||||||
Percentage | 72.6 | 22.8 | 4.6 |
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© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Lyu, M.; Qu, G.; Shi, J.; Sun, D.; Tian, Y. A Method for Studying Building Color Harmony in Coastal Historic and Cultural Districts: A Case Study of Mojiko, Japan. Buildings 2025, 15, 1496. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15091496
Lyu M, Qu G, Shi J, Sun D, Tian Y. A Method for Studying Building Color Harmony in Coastal Historic and Cultural Districts: A Case Study of Mojiko, Japan. Buildings. 2025; 15(9):1496. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15091496
Chicago/Turabian StyleLyu, Mei, Ge Qu, Jiaxuan Shi, Dong Sun, and Yi Tian. 2025. "A Method for Studying Building Color Harmony in Coastal Historic and Cultural Districts: A Case Study of Mojiko, Japan" Buildings 15, no. 9: 1496. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15091496
APA StyleLyu, M., Qu, G., Shi, J., Sun, D., & Tian, Y. (2025). A Method for Studying Building Color Harmony in Coastal Historic and Cultural Districts: A Case Study of Mojiko, Japan. Buildings, 15(9), 1496. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15091496