Study on the Evolution of Private Garden Architecture During the Song Dynasty

Abstract

Private gardens during the Song Dynasty are an important component of classical Chinese garden design. However, existing research predominantly focuses on architectural forms and construction techniques, with insufficient systematic exploration of the overall spatial layout, the typological evolution of garden architecture, and the underlying driving forces behind these changes. Based on the 400 private garden records from the Complete Collection of Song, Song-era notes, poems, and paintings, this study employs methods from cliometrics and iconology to quantitatively analyse historical materials to systematically trace the evolution of spatial layouts, architectural types, architectural construction, and interior furnishings in Song private gardens while delving into the causes of these changes. The findings reveal a significant increase in the application of “elevated and terraced layouts” in Southern Song private gardens. The rise of unique architectural types, such as boat-shaped buildings, academies, and high buildings with a collection of books, is closely tied to the scholar-official culture, advancements in printing technology, the influence of Neo-Confucianism, and government support for private education. Southern Song architectural techniques saw significant advancements in response to climatic changes, featuring diversified roof forms, upturned eaves, detachable doors and windows, and elevated platforms. The invention of modular furniture, such as the Yanji table, exemplifies the ingenuity of Song designers in adapting to shrinking living spaces. This paper is the first to systematically reveal the evolution of private garden architecture in the Song Dynasty, particularly the emergence of unique architectural types. It offers a new perspective for understanding the influences of society, culture, and environment on landscape architecture in the Song Dynasty, providing valuable historical insights for the study of Ming–Qing garden architecture and contemporary landscape design practices.

1. Introduction

Chinese gardens are designed as artistic spaces that are visually appealing, traversable, explorable, and liveable. During the Song Dynasty, private garden architecture served dual purposes: inward as spaces for rest and entertainment, and outward as vantage points for scenic appreciation [1]. Compared with the other four gardening elements of mountains, water, plants, and paths, architecture is entirely human-made, reflecting the builder’s construction concepts and aesthetic ideals and serving as a bridge between natural landscapes and human experience [2]. Current research on Song garden architecture can be categorised into three main types: general historical studies that outline the development and characteristics of Song architecture from a macro perspective [3,4]; studies based on a large number of Song Dynasty paintings, combined with interpretations of the Yingzao Fashi, which focus on the formal features of Song garden architecture [5,6,7,8]; and the diachronic changes and regional differences in Song Dynasty architecture, scholars’ recent attention to which has achieved certain results and jointly promoted the in-depth development of research on this topic [9,10]. However, existing research predominantly focuses on architectural forms and construction techniques, often neglecting a systematic exploration of spatial layouts and typological evolution. These studies do not include a systematic and in-depth discussion of the evolution process of private garden architecture construction in the Song Dynasty or the underlying motivations driving these changes. This gap in the literature provides the impetus for the present study.

Based on the 400 private garden records from the Complete Collection of Song, Song-era notes, poems, and paintings, this study combines documentary analysis and image interpretation to systematically analyse the spatial layout, architectural types, architectural construction, and interior furnishings of Song private gardens. It also aims to uncover the social, environmental, and cultural factors that shaped these developments to enhance the world’s understanding of the design principles underlying Song private garden architecture.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Reasons for Using Garden Records as Primary Research Materials

In the study of Chinese classical garden history, three primary research materials are conventionally employed: extant garden remains, archaeological sites, and the literature on gardens. The latter category comprises four sub-types: garden records, garden paintings, garden treatises, and ancillary documentary sources (Figure 1). For Song Dynasty private gardens, the evidentiary landscape presents unique challenges that necessitate a focused reliance on textual sources, as outlined below.

2.1.1. Limitations of Material Evidence

• Extinction of Physical Remains

Surviving Song-era gardens are exceptionally rare. Even identifiable sites—such as Suzhou’s Canglang Pavilion or Shaoxing’s Shen Garden—have undergone irreversible transformations due to environmental shifts and sociopolitical changes.

2.

Scarcity of Archaeological Data

Garden archaeology presents significant challenges. To date, only two garden archaeological sites from the Song Dynasty have been identified: one is the garden site of Empress Gongsheng Renlie Yang’s residence in Hangzhou [11], and the other is the Zhang Family’s East Garden in Shimen, Zhejiang [12]. These sites serve as valuable references for studying private gardens during the Southern Song Dynasty. However, due to the absence of archaeological evidence for private gardens from the Northern Song Dynasty, a comprehensive comparative analysis of private gardens across both periods remains unattainable. Furthermore, the extant remains are limited to the foundations of the two architectural sites, with many pillar positions having been lost over time. Consequently, while it is possible to determine the general orientation and dimensions of the structures, their detailed layouts, construction techniques, and overall above-ground forms remain largely unknown.

2.1.2. Advantages of Garden Records

Song-era garden records hold unparalleled advantages for studying the evolution of private gardens, primarily manifested in four aspects: (1) The substantial quantity of surviving records, authored by numerous literati across extensive temporal and spatial dimensions, comprehensively reflects the general characteristics of Song private gardens. (2) These records provide direct and holistic documentation of vanished garden spaces, systematically recording proprietors’ identities, construction motivations, historical developments, site selection criteria, and key design elements including mountains, water, architecture, plants, spatial configurations, garden activities, and the underlying philosophy of the garden. Although some records only include parts of this content, collectively, these documents fully reflect the garden construction practices of that era across the entire historical period. (3) Shaped by Northern Song intellectual currents, particularly the Classical Prose Movement’s principle of “using literature to illuminate dao” (文以明道) and the Neo-Confucian epistemology of “investigating things to extend knowledge” (格物致知), the authors of garden records extended their narratives beyond physical descriptions. They contextualised gardens within broader environmental relationships and infused accounts with sociopolitical commentaries on literati lifestyles, scholarly traditions, and philosophical debates, thereby strengthening the interpretative linkage between garden architecture and its cultural milieu. (4) For gardens with complex spatial structures, the records’ experiential narratives—structured around actual visitor itineraries—objectively preserve essential design components, morphological characteristics, spatial organisations, and perceptual qualities. This sequential documentation proves particularly valuable for analysing architectural layouts and their historical transformations.

2.2. Critical Assessment and Utilisation of Other Song-Era Horticultural Literature

2.2.1. Landscape Painting Documentation

While Song-era landscape paintings lack direct representational correspondence with specific gardens, their formal techniques and aesthetic philosophies profoundly influenced contemporary garden artistry during this golden age of Chinese landscape painting. Numerous works—predominantly by court painters—synthesised personal travel experiences and observational practices into idealised garden landscapes. Though not depicting identifiable gardens, these paintings crystallise period-specific mountain–water conceptions and horticultural aesthetics, offering visual complements to textual analysis when cross-referenced with historical records.

Notably, architectural paintings provide hyper-detailed depictions of garden scenes, buildings, and lifestyle practices. These works have become invaluable visual resources for studying this specific area of content. For instance, Wang Ximeng’s A Thousand Miles of Rivers and Mountains meticulously documents Northern Song residential typologies and their environmental integrations [13]. Liu Songnian’s Four Scenes of Landscape chronicles literati leisure activities in Hangzhou west lake, especially including seasonally adaptive architectural features like removable door panels.

2.2.2. Garden Treatises

China’s first dedicated garden treatise Yuanye emerged in the Ming Dynasty, so there is no special literature on garden treatises in the Song Dynasty. However, as an official specification of architectural construction, the Yingzao Fashi promulgated by the Huizong Dynasty in the Northern Song Dynasty can be cross-verified with paintings, records, and objects and is an important reference for this study.

2.2.3. Ancillary Documentary Sources

This study strategically employs the following two subsidiary types of literature relevant to private garden architecture:

• Garden Poetry

Compiled in modern anthologies like Complete Song Poetry and Complete Song Ci, garden poems are mostly made by the garden owner themself or their friends to appreciate and watch, and the expression of the garden’s spatial information is mostly fragmentary, usually focused on a certain spot in the garden, so it can be a useful supplement to examine the single element of the garden’s architecture.

2.

Literati Notebooks

These anecdotal accounts preserved crucial garden-related social histories. Pang Yuanying’s Tan Sou, for instance, exposes Cai Jing’s extravagant garden lifestyle through satirical narratives [14]. Systematically compiled in Complete Song Notebooks, such texts provide irreplaceable insights into garden-related cultural practices absent from formal chronicles.

To summarise, prioritising garden records as primary evidence, this research synergistically incorporates painting analysis for visual reconstruction, technical treatise data for construction verification, and ancillary sources for sociocultural contextualisation. This multidimensional approach transcends the inherent limitations of textual analysis alone, enabling a comprehensive investigation of Song garden architecture’s historical evolution.

2.3. Research Methodology

2.3.1. The Collection and Selection of Garden Records

The Complete Collection of Song, a monumental anthology compiled over two decades by Chinese scholars, serves as the primary textual source. This corpus encompasses over 100 million characters across 10,000 authors, spanning political, economic, philosophical, and artistic discourses of the Song era. Its unparalleled value lies in its inclusion of previously unpublished materials that fill critical historiographical gaps. Supplementary searches were conducted through the Chinese National Library’s Ancient Texts Database, a repository of 1.7 billion characters covering pre-Qin to Republican-era documents, enhanced by advanced search functionalities.

The organisational schema of the Complete Collection of Song follows chronological author biographies, with texts categorised into 15 literary genres. Garden-related records predominantly reside within the miscellaneous records category, identified by titles ending with “garden records”, “pavilion records”, or “hall records”. Additional genres such as Fu, Ming, Shuo, Xu, Ci, and Shang Liangwen containing substantive garden descriptions were inclusively incorporated. Ancient Texts Database queries combined temporal filters (Song Dynasty) with thematic keywords (garden, hall, pavilion, hermitage, etc.) paired with the suffix (record).

This preliminary retrieval yielded an extensive corpus, subsequently refined through tripartite criteria: proprietor status, spatial scale, and documentary completeness. The final curated dataset comprises 400 Song-era garden records (126 Northern Song and 274 Southern Song), documenting 396 distinct private gardens (133 Northern Song and 263 Southern Song). Discrepancies between garden records and garden counts arise from textual multiplicities; some records describe multiple gardens, while some gardens are featured in multiple accounts. Figure 2 delineates the systematic curation workflow.

2.3.2. Methodological Framework for Analysing Architectural Construction and Evolution in Garden Records

• Preliminary Processing of Architectural Data

To mitigate biases arising from authors’ divergent recording practices or uneven documentation across gardens, the 400 collected garden records were systematically deconstructed into thematic data units. This involved extracting architectural descriptions from all records to establish a categorised Garden Architecture Database. A cross-analysis of recurring patterns enabled the comprehensive identification of 35 distinct architectural typologies prevalent in Song private gardens, including pavilions, halls, terraces, multi-story towers, hermitages, and bridges, among others.

2.

Refined Screening of Architectural Data

The study of architectural spatial layouts in Song Dynasty private gardens heavily relies on the detailed descriptions of garden spaces found in historical records. A secondary screening protocol was applied as follows:

Exclusion criteria:

a.

Garden records prioritising historical narratives over spatial descriptions;

b.

Garden records dominated by emotional expressions lacking architectural specifics;

c.

Accounts focused on singular scenic spots unless supplemented by complementary records from the same author.

Inclusion criteria:

d.

Garden records containing complete spatial metadata, documenting all landscape elements, their positional relationships, and material configurations.

These rigorous criteria yielded 77 high-fidelity garden records (28 Northern Song and 49 Southern Song), documenting 64 private gardens (25 Northern Song and 39 Southern Song).

3.

Cliometric Analysis of Architectural Evolution in Private Gardens

Cliometrics is a form of historiography that emerged in the 20th century. It employs mathematical and statistical methodologies to analyse history and conduct quantitative assessments of historical data, contrasting significantly with traditional historiography, which relies on qualitative approaches. Robert William Fogel, a Nobel laureate in economics, utilised econometric techniques to investigate the U.S. slavery economy, the influence of railroads on Western migration, and the impact of the Civil War on American industrialisation, leading to conclusions that diverged from conventional perspectives [15]. Currently, numerous scholars in the fields of landscape architecture and architecture have adopted this methodology in their research [16,17].

Based on the characteristics of garden records, which contain a substantial amount of direct or indirect numerical data, valuable conclusions can be drawn through quantitative analysis. Specifically, first, the descriptions of garden architecture in private gardens during the Song Dynasty and their proportions in the corresponding periods were quantified. For instance, regarding the study of architectural spatial layout, Northern Song Dynasty garden records indicate that the spatial layouts were categorised as “flat and dotted layouts” (76%) and “elevated and terraced layouts” (24%). In contrast, Southern Song Dynasty garden records also identified two types of spatial layouts: “flat and dotted layouts” (64%) and “elevated and terraced layouts” (36%). Second, this study compares the content and proportions of garden architecture descriptions in the Northern and Southern Song Dynasties. Taking the spatial layout of buildings as an example, by comparing the aforementioned studies of private gardens in both dynasties, it is evident that while the construction methods remained consistent, the proportion of “elevated and terraced layouts” in Southern Song Dynasty gardens increased significantly compared to those in the Northern Song Dynasty, warranting further analysis. Finally, the influence of social, cultural, and environmental factors on the construction of private gardens during the Song Dynasty was examined.

Through quantitative statistics and an analysis of garden records, we gained a clearer understanding of the evolution of private gardens throughout history. Of course, measurement-based research methods must be integrated with other approaches to combine quantitative and qualitative research, thereby enhancing the reasonableness and comprehensiveness of the research conclusions.

2.3.3. Methodological Framework for Analysing Architectural Construction and Evolution in Other Horticultural Literature

• The Collection and Selection of Landscape Painting Documentation

This study compiles architectural paintings primarily from the Complete Collection of Song Paintings; Selected Song and Yuan Paintings from the National Palace Museum in Taipei, China; Chinese Famous Paintings of the Ages Collection of the National Palace Museum (Taipei) (Volumes I and II); the Ruler Painting Special Exhibition Catalogue; and The Beauty of Palace Buildings and Pavilions—Special Exhibition of Ruler Paintings. The selection criteria prioritise works with detailed depictions of private garden architecture, excluding paintings where architectural forms are too diminutive or blurred to discern or define façade configurations and structural details.

2.

Iconological Analysis of Private Garden Architectural Construction Evolution

This study draws on art historian Irving Panofsky’s methodology of iconographic research, which specifically includes pre-iconographic descriptions focusing on the elements of art forms and explaining the physical and visual facts of primitive or natural subjects; iconographic analyses that provide intellectual explanations of the identities of the characters in the images, the content of the stories, and the historical background; and iconographic interpretations that elaborate on the cultural, political, economic, religious, and social customs involved in the creation of the images and reflect the particular worldviews to which the works belong [18].

Applying pre-iconographic descriptions, this study catalogues roof forms, exterior ornamentation, and platform foundations in compiled paintings, quantifying and comparing differences between the Northern and Southern Song periods. By cross-verifying visual evidence with physical remains and technical treatises, this study traces the evolution of construction knowledge. Finally, these findings are contextualised within broader socioenvironmental and cultural frameworks to elucidate the drivers of technical transformation, thereby enriching the understanding of Song Dynasty private garden architecture.

3. Results

3.1. The Architectural Spatial Layout and Evolution of Private Gardens in the Song Dynasty

3.1.1. The Architectural Spatial Layout of Private Gardens in the Song Dynasty

• Flat and Dotted Layouts: Harmonious and Pleasing

During the Song Dynasty, large-scale artificial landforms were not yet common in private gardens. As a result, garden architecture was primarily arranged according to the natural topography, with “flat and dotted” layouts often applied to gardens situated on relatively flat terrain. For example, Yuchi’s Garden in Hejian, though modest in scale, was carefully designed: “After clearing the weeds and useless rubble, exquisite flowers and trees were planted throughout... walls were modestly adorned, paths were straightened, and a pavilion was erected at the center, serving as a place for leisure and recreation [19]”. The garden space and architectural layout depicted in Zhao Daheng’s painting Resting at the Wei Pavilion is almost the same as that of Yuchi’s Garden Pavilion, vividly capturing its charm and spatial organisation, as illustrated in Figure 3.

2.

Elevated and Terraced Layouts: Adapting to the Terrain

This layout refers to the arrangement of buildings according to the elevation and topography of the garden site, often employed in gardens built on hilly terrain.

For instance, in Shuangyuan Garden in Longchuan, Guangdong Province, “three peaks were branching from the mountain, and spring stones beneath the site. The garden was situated at the foot of the northern peak, facing the southern mountain. The garden featured the Chengxin Hall on the central peak, the Zhuoying Pavilion behind the hall, and the Rixiu Pavilion to the west. Majestic structures and painted towers were placed at the base of the northern peak, connected by winding paths. Looking from the place at the confluence of two streams towards the Chengxin Hall, it resembled the rocks protruding from the water’s edge that was usually used for fishing, with flying bridges, steps, and intricately designed railings adding to the garden’s complexity” [21]. It is clear that the architectural spatial layout of this garden was far more intricate than that of the previously mentioned “flat and dotted” embellished pavilions. Not only has the number and type of buildings increased, but the design also fully integrates the natural topography, demonstrating flexible planning. The Southern Song painter Zhao Boju’s Autumn Scenery along the River vividly depicts the architectural forms of Jiangnan’s mountainous regions, including residences, temples, plank roads, pavilions, and beamless bridges, providing valuable first-hand material for studying early Southern Song Dynasty architectural styles in mountainous regions [5]. Figure 4 presents a schematic analysis based on a section of this painting, which visually represents the spatial layout of Shuangyuan Garden.

3.1.2. Evolution of Architectural Spatial Layout

This study, based on a selection of 64 garden records from the Complete Collection of Song, categorises the spatial layouts of private gardens during this period. The results are summarised in

Table 1. A statistical analysis of the architectural spatial layout of private gardens in selected Song Dynasty garden records.

Architectural Spatial Layout	Northern Song Dynasty		Southern Song Dynasty
	Garden Name	Number (%)	Garden Name	Number (%)
Flat and dotted layouts: harmonious and pleasing	Canglang Pavilion, Garden of Pleasure in Solitude, Jiuhua Medicine Garden, Pleasant Garden, Guiren Garden, Pine Island, Lake Garden, Ring Creek Garden, Fu Zheng Garden, Miao Shuai Garden, Congchun Garden, Leisure Pavilion, Respect Pavilion, Bamboo Pavilion, Dezhi Pavilion, Yuchi Garden, Yilao Pavilion, Yingpo Pavilion, Conggui Hall	19 (76%)	Cuiwei Hall, Yongzhou Enjoying Gull Pavilion, Fishing Perch Terrace, Planting Osmanthus Hall, Four Elder Hall, Qingping Pavilion, Plum Garden, Green Painting Pavilion, Spiralling Island, Zhijie Hall, Bamboo Island, Xianglin Garden, Zheng’s North Wild Garden, Endless Garden, Zhang Xifang’s Mountain View Pavilion, He Ke’s West Garden, Feilai Garden, Double-Peaked Hall, Quietly Viewing Pavilion, Mountain Moon Pavilion, Yang’s Book-Collecting Hall, Lanxun Hall, South Stream Zhangyin Garden, Plum Pavilion, Yu’s Garden	25 (64%)
Elevated and terraced layouts: adapting to the terrain	Qiuxiang Pavilion, Mengxi Garden, Snow Hall, Huangzhou Carefree Pavilion, Shuangyuan Garden, Hu’s Garden north of the river	6 (24%)	Ye’s Stone Forest Garden, Taoist Hermitage Garden, Biyun Pavilion, Youben Pavilion, Siluo Pavilion, Cui Jiayan’s Garden, Shuangxi Garden, Mo Nengming Pavilion, Hong’s Ke Pavilion, Bamboo Slope, Lingyuan Tianjing Garden, New Pavilion, Zhao’s Suwan Garden, Yi Pavilion	14 (36%)

.

As shown in Table 1, “flat and dotted” layouts dominated private gardens throughout the Song Dynasty, accounting for 76% of the Northern Song gardens and 64% of the Southern Song gardens. This prevalence can be attributed to the relative ease of construction and the material and financial constraints of garden owners. However, the proportion of “elevated and terraced” layouts increased during the Southern Song Dynasty, reflecting adaptations to the region’s hilly terrain and the growing sophistication of garden design.

3.2. Emergence and Significance of Unique Architectural Types in Song Dynasty Private Gardens

During the Song Dynasty, pavilions and halls were the most common architectural types in private gardens, primarily for leisure purposes, daily living, and hosting guests. However, the Southern Song Dynasty saw a notable increase in the use of boat-shaped buildings, academies, and high buildings with a collection of books.

3.2.1. Emergence and Symbolic Significance of Boat-Shaped Buildings

Boat-shaped buildings are a distinctive feature of Song Dynasty private gardens. While many scholars attribute the origin of these structures, known as unmoored boats, to the Southern Song and the Jiangnan region [23,24], their roots can be traced back to the Northern Song, specifically to the painted boat pavilion created by Ouyang Xiu.

In 1042, while serving as a magistrate in Huazhou, Ouyang Xiu constructed the painted boat pavilion within his official residence. The building, only one bay wide but seven bays deep, featured a long, linear layout with interconnected rooms. The roof of the innermost room was open to attract light, and there was no wall between the columns of the outer eaves, only being enclosed by railings resembling a leaning rail. The courtyard outside was adorned with towering rocks and beautiful plants, creating a picturesque view of rugged cliffs to the left and dense forests to the right, which hid each other and were extremely pleasant. The overall design evoked the sensation of drifting leisurely on a boat; hence, the building was named after the boat [25].

Because of its novel shape and special political and cultural metaphors, the building soon attracted the attention of a group of scholars. Su Zhe, a disciple of Ouyang Xiu, praised the building, noting its “layered windows bathed in sunlight, evoking the ambiance of a boat” [26]. Su Zhe also recorded a similar boat-shaped pavilion built by his friend Mao Jun, describing it as “a pavilion resembling a small boat, just spacious enough to inhabit” [27]. Despite these early examples, boat-shaped buildings were not widely adopted in Northern Song Dynasty private gardens. The eighteen famous gardens that best represent the outstanding gardening art of the Northern Song Dynasty did not record the phenomenon of boat landscaping [28]. However, during the Southern Song Dynasty, boat-shaped buildings flourished. Examples include the “Fufang Pavilion” in Mu Duanming’s garden in Wuxing, the “Yizhou” in Ding’s garden [29], the “Yizhai” in Hong Shi’s Spiralling Island garden [30], the “Fishing Snow boat” in Yang Wanli’s garden [31], and the “Fragrant Faraway Boat” in Xu Jingsun’s garden [32]. Chen Zao made a “boat-shaped pavilion cable to tide” [33], and Chen Wenwei built a boat pavilion in the two pools with the name “Lying Pavilion” [34]. The “Feipeng Pavilion” was located in the centre of the lotus pond in Sun Changzhou’s garden [35].

Most of these boat-shaped buildings were constructed on or near water, with only a few built on flat land. First, this shows that the Song people’s construction technology was superb, and they implemented effective underwater foundation treatment technologies such as floating raft foundations and oyster house solid foundations [4]. Second, this kind of building had both “the use of relief” and “the joy of boat traveling” [25], becoming a spiritual shelter for scholars to live in, symbolising the dilemma of scholars floating in the world and giving it a profound cultural meaning. Facing the conditions of internal and external national struggles, the intellectuals of the Southern Song Dynasty experienced uncertainty, and their lives were continually disrupted. Undoubtedly, the thoughts of Ouyang Xiu provided them with spiritual sustenance, so it was an important turning period when boats were introduced into garden landscapes as a theme element during the two Song Dynasties. The cultural significance of boat-shaped buildings extended beyond the Song Dynasty, influencing the design of Ming–Qing private gardens and even imperial gardens. In addition to expressing the ideal of moderate reclusion, these boat-shaped buildings also evoked historical and philosophical themes, such as the metaphor of “water can carry a boat, but it can also overturn it” and the Buddhist concept of “steer the boat of the mind with wisdom and transcend worldly constraints [36]”.

3.2.2. Proliferation of Academies and High Buildings with Collections of Books in Private Gardens

Academies originated in the Tang Dynasty, emerging from both private study halls and government institutions dedicated to compiling classical texts from two sources, namely, the government and the people [37]. During the Southern Song Dynasty, the use of academies in private gardens increased significantly. According to Bai Xinliang’s research, the number of academies during the Southern Song Dynasty was five times that of the Northern Song Dynasty [38]. This growth can be attributed to several factors.

Geopolitical changes: Following the southward migration of the Song court, the reduced territory and limited number of official schools created a demand for private academies to meet the educational needs of scholars.

Advancements in printing: The widespread adoption of woodblock printing and the growth of the private book carving industry made books more accessible, facilitating the development of academies.

Corruption in official education: The Southern Song’s official schools and imperial examination system became increasingly corrupt, with teachers focusing on exam-oriented education [39]. In contrast, academies promoted a culture of free inquiry and scholarly excellence, attracting many students.

The widespread dissemination of Neo-Confucianism: Prominent Neo-Confucian scholars such as Zhu Xi, Lü Zuqian, Zhang Shi, and Lu Jiuyuan used academies as platforms for teaching and discussing the deeper meanings of classical texts, emphasising personal cultivation rather than mere preparation for examinations to gain merit.

Government support: During the reign of Emperor Lizong, Neo-Confucianism was established as the official orthodoxy, further promoting the integration and prosperity of academies with Neo-Confucianist thought. These factors collectively contributed to the development of academies, transforming them into significant functional structures within private gardens.

Many Southern Song Dynasty academies evolved from the private study halls of scholar-officials. For example, the renowned Cloud Valley Academy began as Zhu Xi’s private residence in Jianyang, Fujian Province. In 1170, Zhu Xi constructed the Hui’an Cottage and Cloud Homestead on the site [40]. Five years later, Cai Yuanding built the West Hill House in the southwest of the Cloud Valley, and the two scholars frequently exchanged ideas, attracting numerous students. Over time, Zhu Xi’s private estate transformed into a thriving academy. Alongside academies, high buildings with collections of books also flourished, becoming a standard feature in the gardens of scholar-officials.

High buildings with collections of books, which originated in imperial courts during the Han Dynasty, were highly valued in the Song period as essential tools for family transmission and teaching, with efficacy that far exceeded monetary status [41]. The popularisation of papermaking and the promotion of book printing during the Song Dynasty led to a tenfold increase in the number of books, with the cost decreasing significantly [42]. This promoted the trend of constructing book collection buildings in private gardens.

In the Southern Song Dynasty, Huizhou became renowned for its numerous high buildings with collections of books owing to two main factors: First, many of its residents were descendants of northern aristocrats with a strong scholarly tradition. Second, Huizhou was the ancestral home of Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi, and Zhu Xi, the founders and synthesisers of Neo-Confucianism. Zhu Xi returned to Huizhou twice to visit his relatives, each time staying for several months to lecture countless scholars around the region. Zhu Xi posited that “The way to study science is to exhaustively study the principles of things. If you want to study the principle clearly, you must first read” [43]. This idea further stimulated the local culture of learning and book collecting.

Of course, the popularity of multi-storey buildings in Southern Song Dynasty private gardens was also linked to the shrinking size of gardens. In the hilly terrain of southern China, garden owners sought to maximise space for storing books, paintings, and other collections, as well as for enjoying elevated views and other demands, with the architectural style becoming increasingly more refined. This trend continued into the Ming and Qing Dynasties, exemplified by structures such as the Tianyi Pavilion in Ningbo, the Wenyuan Pavilion in the Forbidden City, the Wenjin Pavilion in the Chengde Summer Palace, and the Wenyuan Pavilion in the northern part of Yuanmingyuan.

3.3. Adaptations in Architectural Construction and Interior Furnishings

The construction techniques and interior furnishings of private gardens of the Song Dynasty also underwent significant changes, as vividly depicted in numerous paintings. Although these paintings are not literal representations of actual scenes, they reflect the architectural trends and aesthetic preferences of the time. The key developments are summarised below.

3.3.1. Diversification of Roof Forms and Upturned Eaves

An examination of Song Dynasty architectural paintings revealed that Northern Song Dynasty private gardens predominantly featured four-sided pyramidal roofs, flush gable roofs, and hip-and-gable roofs. By the Southern Song, the variety of roof forms expanded to include cross-ridge roofs, overhanging gable roofs, and rolled-shed roofs, as well as four-, six-, and eight-sided pyramidal roofs. These forms encompassed nearly all of the roof types seen in later periods [44]. The linked-roof design, commonly found in Ming–Qing architecture, frequently appears in the late Southern Song Dynasty painting Scenes of the West Lake. This practice became an important means for people at that time to save construction land and building materials and enrich the shape under the background of the growing expansion of Hangzhou City, and it is still used today.

Another notable change was the upward curvature of eaves, particularly in the Jiangnan region. In the early period until the Northern Song Dynasty, the eaves of buildings in Jiangnan were relatively flat, as seen in structures such as the Zhakou White Pagoda and the Lingyin Temple Pagoda in Hangzhou [45] and many other paintings in the Song Dynasty [6]. However, by the Southern Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, the upturned eaves became more pronounced, reflecting adaptations to the region’s humid and rainy climate.

3.3.2. Transformations in Exterior Decoration in Response to Climate

Exterior decoration refers to the treatment of components between and outside the eave columns, including doors, windows, exterior walls, eaves, and railings. Due to the shift in the geographical focus of private garden construction from the Central Plains to Jiangnan during the Song Dynasty, exterior decoration necessitated adaptations to the differing climatic conditions of the north and south.

• The Expansion of Building Façades and Spaces Based on Changes in the Combination of Detachable Doors and Windows and their Components

According to the Yingzao Fashi, compiled during the Northern Song Dynasty, lattice doors were typically composed of multiple panels surrounded by a wooden square frame. The inside of the frame was divided into upper, middle, and lower parts by a waist string, with an empty lattice at the upper part, a waisted panel in the middle, and a baffle panel at the lower part (Figure 5). However, Song paintings often depict another simplified version of lattice doors, consisting only of a frame and lattice without the middle and lower panels. This design, seen in works such as Four Scenes of Landscape and Feasting Under Lanterns, extended the lattice from the top to the base of the door. However, the Yingzao Fashi does not mention this simplified design, and since all such depictions were made by the Southern Song people, it is likely a Southern Song Dynasty innovation [46]. These simplified lattice doors were used not only as doors, but also as windows. According to Fu Boxing’s summary of his years of the study of painting, “From Han Dynasty portrait stone reliefs to Northern Song paintings, windows were typically fixed straight lattice windows set in the middle of walls and cannot be opened and closed. In Southern Song paintings, however, fixed straight lattice windows and walls disappeared, replaced by wooden lattice windows extending from the eaves to the ground, enveloping the building on all sides [47]”. These wooden lattice windows consisted of two layers: an inner layer installed between the eave columns and the ground, replacing the traditional wall, and an outer layer mounted between the eave brackets under the eave bucket arches or rafters, extending from the roof to the ground. This design concealed the eave bucket arches and beams between the eave columns, creating a cleaner and more elegant façade (Figure 6).

According to Fu Xi’nian’s research, this transformation in doors and windows began in the early Southern Song Dynasty and became widespread during the reigns of Emperors Guangzong and Ningzong in the mid-Southern Song Dynasty. This innovation was in response to the harsh climatic conditions of Jiangnan, where the intense summer heat and winter cold proved challenging for northern migrants [49]. The change demonstrated remarkable ecological wisdom: the heavy rammed-earth walls and fixed straight lattice windows were replaced by detachable wooden lattice windows. This adaptation significantly improved the buildings’ ability to regulate light, ventilation, insulation, and other needs. Numerous Southern Song Dynasty paintings vividly depict the process of installing and removing these lattice windows according to seasonal needs (Figure 7).

In parallel with the changes in the façade of the windows and doors, the interior space of the building was also extended. Analysing detailed depictions of private garden architecture in Song paintings revealed that the exterior decoration of Song Dynasty garden architecture can be divided into six developmental stages. Stages one and two represent typical Northern Song Dynasty practices, which, although still used during the Southern Song Dynasty, were no longer dominant. Stages five and six, on the other hand, are predominantly seen in Southern Song Dynasty paintings, with stage six appearing exclusively in Southern Song Dynasty and later imitations of Song works. The practices of stages three and four belong to a more complex transitional stage in the middle (Figure 8).

In traditional Asian timber-framed architecture, the climatic boundary separating indoor and outdoor spaces is typically defined by lattice doors or long windows, while the behavioural boundary limiting movement is marked by railings [7]. In the early Northern Song Dynasty, the absence of space beyond the eave columns (unless a platform was present) confined most activities to the area within the columns, causing the behavioural and climatic boundaries to overlap. By the mid-to-late Northern Song Dynasty, the distance between the railings and eave columns increased, creating an exterior space under the eaves. However, lattice doors remained positioned between the columns, failing to provide adequate shelter for outdoor activities during inclement weather. This limitation was less problematic in the drier northern regions but posed significant challenges in the humid and rainy south. As one Southern Song text notes, “The low-lying land is damp, and the plum rains bring humidity and steam, even the beams and rafters of lofty buildings are dotted with moisture like dew” [50]. During rainy weather, people preferred to stay under the ventilated eaves. To address this, Southern Song architects, centred in the south, extended the eaves and moved doors and windows beyond the railings, pushing the behavioural boundary inside the climatic boundary and effectively expanding the usable living space.

2.

Evolution of Railing Corner Construction Methods

The Yingzao Fashi records two methods for constructing railings at corners during the Northern Song Dynasty. One is “Hejiao Zao”, where a baluster column is placed at the corner, with the handrail inserted into the baluster columns. The other is “Jiaojiao Zao”, where no baluster columns are used at the corner; instead, the handrails from two directions intersect to form a joint. Both methods originated in the Tang Dynasty (Figure 9). While the “Jiaojiao Zao” method became prevalent in Japan, it became increasingly rare in China after the Song and Liao periods, with no surviving examples or depictions from the Ming and Qing Dynasties. In contrast, the “Hejiao Zao” method gradually became the dominant approach for railing corners during the Song, particularly in the middle and late Southern Song Dynasty architectural paintings. This raises the question of why this shift occurred.

In the previous section, we discussed the gradual expansion of human activities under eaves and within climatic boundaries. It was noted that in later periods, eave brackets were employed in the field and combined with railings to form an external interface. In this case, the eave brackets often coincided with the railing corner baluster column, making the “Jiaojiao Zao” method impractical. As a result, the “Hejiao Zao” method, which incorporated the eave brackets, became a natural choice (Figure 10). This influence was so profound that even after the eave brackets fell out of use during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the “Hejiao Zao” method continued to be employed [52].

3.3.3. Elevated Platforms

In response to the humid and rainy climate of Jiangnan, many Southern Song Dynasty buildings were constructed on elevated platforms. These platforms served multiple purposes: they protected the structures from dampness, increased building height for better ventilation and lighting, provided elevated vantage points for viewing, and enhanced the overall grandeur of the architecture. Southern Song Dynasty paintings depict two common types of elevated platforms. One is rammed-earth platforms, which were built using compacted earth and faced with brick or stone for durability. The other is column-supported platforms, which consist of rows of tall columns lifting the building above the ground (Figure 11).

3.3.4. Modular Furniture Design

During the Northern Song Dynasty, the growing literati class placed high value on quality of life and aesthetics, emphasising both the practicality and artistry of furniture. Faced with limited space and financial resources, Huang Bosi invented modular furniture known as Yanji in the late Northern Song Dynasty. The Yanji set consisted of two long tables (4 × 1 units), two medium tables (3 × 1 units), and three short tables (2 × 1 units). These seven tables could be used individually or combined according to the need to form various configurations, including squares, concave shapes, T shapes, and mountain-like arrangements, totalling 25 forms and 76 layouts. This furniture could be flexibly arranged based on the number of guests, the amount of tableware, and the available space. Even the tables could be placed around the perimeter, leaving the centre open for candlesticks, flower vases, or food containers. The versatility and adaptability of Yanji furniture made it a precursor to modern modular furniture (Figure 12).

Huang Bosi described the Yanji as “the transformation of the wise [55]”, utilising mathematical and geometric principles through standardised dimensions and modular design to achieve diverse combinations. This fusion of science and art reflected the high level of literati-inspired design during the Song period, showcasing the ingenuity and creativity of Song scholars in their leisurely pursuits. The Yanji Diagram became the first documented design for modular furniture in Chinese history. The Yanji concept evolved into the Dieji during the Ming Dynasty and further into the Qiqiao Diagram (Seven-Piece Puzzle) in the early Qing Dynasty (Figure 13), known internationally as the Tangram. While later designs adopted diagonal shapes, allowing for even more combinations, the foundational principles of modularity and adaptability can be traced back to the Song Dynasty. Zhu Qiqian, based on original designs, reconstructed the Kuangji, noting that its mortise-and-tenon joints “fit together naturally and securely without the need for hinges” [55] (Figure 14). This highlights the profound influence of Song-era modular furniture design on later generations.

4. Discussion

4.1. Theoretical Positioning and Historical Context of Research Findings

This study systematically examines the evolutionary patterns of spatial layouts, architectural types, architectural construction, and interior furnishings in private gardens of the Song Dynasty, establishing a tripartite “society–environment–technology” analytical framework. This framework elevates the study of Song-era garden architecture from mere formal characteristics to a holistic interpretation of cultural ecosystems. Within the broader trajectory of architectural history, Song private gardens occupy a pivotal transitional role. As Han Baode observed, the Song period marked a critical juncture in Chinese garden history—a shift from the “Luoyang era” to the “Jiangnan era” [56]. Post-Southern Song, garden areas exhibited a notable trend of spatial contraction due to shifting geographical centres of cultural activity and environmental constraints. Beyond the architectural transformations explored herein, this period also witnessed the rising prominence of rockery design and the emergence of water features as compositional focal points in garden design.

4.2. Cross-Cultural Comparisons and Theoretical Dialogue

The Zen gardens of Japan’s Kamakura period (1185–1333), with their withered landscape achieving “cosmic vastness within a stone basin”, share profound conceptual parallels with the Southern Song practice of constructing elevated pavilions for borrowed scenery. Both exemplify the Eastern philosophical pursuit of “infinity within finitude” through spatial poetics. Comparatively, the terraced layouts of Renaissance Italian gardens and the Southern Song’s topography-responsive “adapting to terrain” approach, though culturally distinct in their formal expressions (geometric regularity versus organic naturalism), both demonstrate ingenious human responses to sloped terrains. Such cross-cultural analysis not only clarifies the uniqueness of Song gardens but also offers fresh perspectives for global garden historiography.

4.3. Deeper Interpretation of Architectural Types and Cultural Motivations

The functional classification system emerging from this study—categorising Song private garden structures as academic (e.g., academies, libraries, high buildings with collections of books), recreational (pavilions, halls, terraces, and boat-shaped buildings), or religious (Taoist/Buddhist temples and ancestral shrines)—provides an empirical foundation for understanding architectural stratification. This typological framework not only deepens our comprehension of Song garden architecture but also establishes a valuable reference for Ming–Qing garden studies. Future research could explore correlations between building type preferences and garden owners’ social identities (scholar-officials, merchants, and imperial clansmen), as well as functional differentiations among academic, leisure, and religious structures.

The proliferation of boat-shaped buildings, academies, and high buildings with a collection of books in Song private gardens reflects multifaceted influences: the rise of scholar-official culture, advancements in printing technology, Neo-Confucian philosophy, and governmental policies. The popularity of boat-shaped buildings transcended mere formal innovation, spatialising the moderate reclusion philosophy; through symbolic boat forms, scholar-officials materialised their paradoxical aspiration to “reclude grandly at court or modestly in wilderness”. Later Ming–Qing garden features like the Fragrant Boat in the Humble Administrator’s Garden, the Haunted Red Barge in the Retreating Souls Garden, and the Qingyan Boat in the Summer Palace trace their lineage to Northern Song prototypes like Ouyang Xiu’s painted boat pavilion, evidencing the enduring legacy of Song architectural innovations.

The Tang prohibition against “private residences constructing towers overlooking neighbours [57]” was dissipated by the Song. The proliferation of academies and libraries mirrored educational reforms and scholar-official emphasis on knowledge transmission while also representing creative responses to spatial constraints in Southern Song gardens, which is a testament to their cultural adaptability.

4.4. Interaction Between Climate Change and Building Techniques

Southern Song architectural advancements demonstrate pronounced climate responsiveness. Diversified roof forms, upturned eaves, detachable doors and windows, and elevated platforms exemplify the period’s environmental adaptability, aligning with climatic determinism theories positing architecture as an adaptive response to geographical and social demands [58].

Future research could compare the evolution of this technique with the majestic style of Tang Dynasty architecture and the fine craftsmanship of Ming and Qing Dynasty architecture, revealing the Song Dynasty’s unique technoaesthetic contributions. Innovations like “Hejiao Zao” railing corner construction methods laid crucial technical foundations for later periods.

4.5. Contemporary Relevance and Heritage Conservation

The evolutionary patterns of Song Dynasty private garden architecture offer both historical insights and modern applications. Southern Song spatial strategies—such as elevated vista borrowing and modular furniture like the transformable Yanji table—anticipate contemporary concepts of space efficiency and modular design. These historical precedents hold practical value for high-density urban green space planning and compact housing solutions.

4.6. Limitations and Future Directions

Three research frontiers warrant further exploration: (1) Comparative studies with Liao and Jin Dynasty gardens through a textual analysis of the Complete Collection of Liao and Da Jin Jili. (2) The integration of archaeological 3D reconstructions with existing painting-based iconographic studies. (3) Theoretical deepening of cross-cultural comparisons using architectural phenomenology. Future research trajectories could map “East Asian garden technology transmission chains” to trace Song influences on Korean and Japanese gardens or employ GIS spatial analysis to quantify climate–architecture correlations, advancing garden historiography toward interdisciplinary, data-driven paradigms.

5. Conclusions

Through a systematic study of the spatial layouts, architectural types, architectural construction, and interior furnishings of Song private gardens, this study reveals their evolutionary patterns under the influence of regional differences and temporal changes. First, the spatial layouts of Song private gardens can be categorised into two types: “flat and dotted” and “elevated and terraced”. The former remained dominant throughout the Song period, while the latter gained prominence during the Southern Song due to adaptations to hilly terrain. Both layouts reflect the Song people’s ecological, economic, and practical considerations in site selection, embodying the harmonious coexistence of garden architecture and the natural environment.

Second, pavilions and halls were the most frequently used architectural types in Song Dynasty private gardens, continuing traditions from earlier periods. The boat-shaped buildings pioneered by Ouyang Xiu during the Northern Song Dynasty, influenced by scholar-official culture and the ideal of moderate reclusion, became widely adopted in the Southern Song Dynasty and even influenced the thematic designs of Ming–Qing gardens. Additionally, academies and high buildings with collections of books also flourished in Southern Song private gardens, driven by advancements in printing, the spread of Neo-Confucianism, and government support for private education. Elevated views and borrowed scenery became key design strategies and enriched the spatial and cultural dimensions of Southern Song Dynasty gardens.

Finally, Southern Song architectural techniques improved significantly in response to climatic changes. Diversified roof forms, upturned eaves, detachable doors and windows, the “Hejiao Zao” method for railing corners, and elevated platforms were widely adopted. The invention of modular furniture, such as the Yanji, addressed the need for adaptability in increasingly compact living spaces, highlighting Song architecture’s emphasis on practicality in design.

In summary, this study is the first to systematically reveal the evolutionary patterns of private garden architecture during the Song Dynasty. It provides a new theoretical framework for understanding the impact of Song society, environment, and culture on landscape architecture, offering historical insights for the study of Ming–Qing gardens and contemporary landscape design practices.