Novel Embedded Integrated Smart Elements and Coda Wave Analysis for Investigating GGBS Effects on Cement Hydration

Liu, Yuqing; Huang, Bokai; Ding, Weijian; Qin, Shanshan; Wang, Yuanxing; Zhang, Wenjie; Liang, Yu; Wang, Yu

doi:10.3390/buildings15234307

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Novel Embedded Integrated Smart Elements and Coda Wave Analysis for Investigating GGBS Effects on Cement Hydration

by

Yuqing Liu

¹,

Bokai Huang

¹,

Weijian Ding

^2,*

,

Shanshan Qin

²

,

Yuanxing Wang

³,

Wenjie Zhang

³,

Yu Liang

⁴ and

Yu Wang

⁴

¹

School of Civil Engineering and Transportation, Foshan University, Foshan 528225, China

²

School of Construction Engineering, Shenzhen Polytechnic University, Shenzhen 518055, China

³

School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Jinan, Jinan 250022, China

⁴

School of Artificial Intelligence, Shenzhen Polytechnic University, Shenzhen 518055, China

^*

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Buildings 2025, 15(23), 4307; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15234307 (registering DOI)

Submission received: 19 October 2025 / Revised: 18 November 2025 / Accepted: 24 November 2025 / Published: 27 November 2025

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Composite Structures for Sustainable Building Solutions)

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Abstract

Ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) is a typical supplementary cementitious material that can delay the early hydration of cement. In this study, a novel integrated sensor was employed to continuously monitor the hydration process of cementitious materials and to characterize the influence of GGBS addition on hydration behavior. The monitoring results show that the signal parameters, including amplitude, energy, and frequency domain, varied significantly during hydration. For plain cement paste (0% GGBS), the maximum signal amplitude after 24 h decreased by 28.2% compared with that at 0 h. As the GGBS content increased to 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%, the amplitude reduction ratios increased to 34.1%, 38.1%, 36.8%, 53.1%, 47.4%, and 59.0%, respectively. A similar trend was observed for the signal energy, with corresponding decreases of 34.3%, 41.5%, 39.3%, 44.5%, 53.1%, 47.0%, and 59.5%. These results clearly indicate that the incorporation of GGBS delays the early hydration of cement and suppresses the evolution of ultrasonic response. Short-time Fourier transform analysis further confirmed that the main frequency peak shifted toward a later time with increasing GGBS content, demonstrating the retarding effect of slag on hydration kinetics. This study verifies the feasibility of using integrated sensors for in situ monitoring of the hydration delay process in GGBS-blended cementitious materials.

Keywords: integrated smart element; GGBS; hydration; active acoustic emission

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MDPI and ACS Style

Liu, Y.; Huang, B.; Ding, W.; Qin, S.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, W.; Liang, Y.; Wang, Y. Novel Embedded Integrated Smart Elements and Coda Wave Analysis for Investigating GGBS Effects on Cement Hydration. Buildings 2025, 15, 4307. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15234307

AMA Style

Liu Y, Huang B, Ding W, Qin S, Wang Y, Zhang W, Liang Y, Wang Y. Novel Embedded Integrated Smart Elements and Coda Wave Analysis for Investigating GGBS Effects on Cement Hydration. Buildings. 2025; 15(23):4307. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15234307

Chicago/Turabian Style

Liu, Yuqing, Bokai Huang, Weijian Ding, Shanshan Qin, Yuanxing Wang, Wenjie Zhang, Yu Liang, and Yu Wang. 2025. "Novel Embedded Integrated Smart Elements and Coda Wave Analysis for Investigating GGBS Effects on Cement Hydration" Buildings 15, no. 23: 4307. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15234307

APA Style

Liu, Y., Huang, B., Ding, W., Qin, S., Wang, Y., Zhang, W., Liang, Y., & Wang, Y. (2025). Novel Embedded Integrated Smart Elements and Coda Wave Analysis for Investigating GGBS Effects on Cement Hydration. Buildings, 15(23), 4307. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15234307

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Novel Embedded Integrated Smart Elements and Coda Wave Analysis for Investigating GGBS Effects on Cement Hydration

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