Brain Booster Buildings: Modelling Stairs’ Use as a Daily Booster of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
- Explore the associations between metabolic equivalents (METs) and both stairs and stair use parameters. This objective is accomplished through a narrative literature review using search terms ‘stair *’, ‘metabolic equivalents’, and METs in the Scopus database and Google Scholar for studies published between 1995 and 2025. We only included English-language studies on healthy adults to avoid any confounding variables at this stage. Studies must report acute METs explicitly, and with objective measures. They must report the number of flights or floors if not reporting METs associated with carrying loads upstairs. The first objective is to establish an association between the predictive outcome of METs and both staircase parameters (e.g., number of floors) and stair use type (e.g., ascending stairs, descending stairs, or both).
- Explain the potential association between staircase parameters (e.g., number of floors and riser height) and the METs outcome to inform architectural design.
- Explore the association between physical activity intensities (low intensity < 3 METs, moderate intensity = 3–6 METs, and high intensity > 6 METs) and acute changes in BDNF levels. Due to the lack of meta-analyses, this objective was achieved through a narrative review of the acute changes in BDNF in response to different types of activity.
- Establish the ‘Brain Booster Buildings’ theoretical framework that can estimate increases in BDNF levels according to the recommended duration of stair use to inform policymakers and lifestyle medicine.
- Conduct scenario-based modelling using the Brain Booster Buildings framework to estimate the BDNF changes in three scenarios (1, 3, and >3 floors) for each building type (residential, educational, office, hospital, and commercial).
3. Staircase Affordances for Metabolic Equivalents (METs)
Subject Physical Characteristics | Stairs Characteristics | Stair Use | Total Duration | METs | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age | Weight (kg) | Height (m) | Pace (Steps·Min−1) | Riser Height (cm) | Total Steps | Floors/Flights (Above Ground) | ||||
Staircase | ||||||||||
Teh & Aziz [36] | M: 44.8 ± 13.9 F: 43.2 ± 12.9 | M: 66.2 ± 10.6 F: 54.4 ± 7.2 | M: 1.68 ± 0.5 F: 1.58 ± 0.5 | Brisk pace - Ascent: M: 99 ± 14 F: 90 ± 14 Descent: M: 103 ± 9 F: 110 ± 17 | 15 | 180 | 11 floors (22 flights) | Ascent and descent | Ascent: 116 ± 18 s Descent: 106 ± 14 s | Ascent: M: 9.9 F: 9.2 Descent: M: 4.6 F: 5.1 |
Yue et al. [39] | Young adults M: 28.7 ± 7.5 F: 25.9 ± 7.7 Older adults M: 72.7 ± 7.1 F: 71.1 ± 6.0 | Young adults M: 63.2 ± 9.2 F: 54.6 ± 9.9 Older adults M: 63.7 ± 8.0 F: 56.4 ± 8.4 | Young adults M: 1.72 ± 0.08 F: 1.58 ± 0.08 Older adults M: 1.64 ± 0.06 F: 1.52 ± 0.05 | Preferred or normal speed | — | — | 2 flights | Ascent and descent × 4 times | (Ascent and descent) Young adults: 1.96 ± 0.29 min Older adults: 2.96 ± 0.14 min | (Ascent and descent) Young adults: 3.8 ± 0.69 Older adults: 2.9 ± 0.73 |
Cho et al. [37] | 31.0 ± 4.9 | 67.9 ± 12.9 | 169.3 ± 6.9 | Railing use is allowed | 10 | — | 5 floors | Ascent | — | 6.18 ± 1.08 |
Al Kandari et al. [38] | M: 33.6 ± 10.53 F: 30.93 ± 19.69 | M: 82.27 ± 13.04 F: 67.93 ± 10.99 | M: 1.72 ± 0.05 F: 1.59 ± 0.08 | Natural pace | 17.3 | 100 | 5 floors (est. 10 flights) | Ascent and descent | Ascent: 2 min Descent: 2 min | Ascent: M: 7.55 ± 1.32 F: 7.58 ± 0.99 Descent: M: 3.19 ± 2.78 F: 3.62 ± 0.61 |
4. Physical Activity, METs and BDNF
Study | Sample Size (Young Adults up to 35 yrs) | Sample Characteristics | BDNF (Serum/Plasma) | PA Intensity and Duration | Delta (BDNF Δ (Baseline → Final)—Moderate Intensity (3–6 METs) | Delta (BDNF Δ (Baseline → Final)—High Intensity (>6 METs) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Within-person | ||||||
Gibbons et al. [48] | 12 (6 males; 6 females) | Aerobically fit and healthy; 30 ± 10 years; BMI < 25 | Plasma and serum | 90 min light-intensity + 6 min high-intensity | — | Plasma = +250% Serum = +40% |
Marquez et al. [50] | 26 males | Active and healthy; 28 ± 5 years; | serum | — | — | HIIT: 0 → 6 min: ~+900 pg/mL 0 → 20 min: ~+3900 pg/mL Cont.: 0 → 6 min: ~+1700 pg/mL 0 → 20 min: ~+1800 pg/mL |
Between-person | ||||||
Hutchinson et al. [42] | 30 females | 30.2 ± 4.3 years; BMI 18.5–29.9 | serum | Moderate intensity walking 40–60% heart rate reserve (HRR) for 30 min (excluding 2 min. warmup | ~+300 pg/mL (pregnant women) ~+1700 pg/mL (non-pregnant women) | — |
Goulet et al. [51] | 13 males | Active and healthy; 22 ± 3 years; 79.2 (9.3) kg | serum | 180 min. Moderate intensity walking (in a 32 °C environment) | ~+1000 pg/mL (similarly in the old adults group) | — |
5. The Brain Booster Buildings: A Theoretical Framework
6. Discussion
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Stair-Use Activity Type | Stair-Use Duration | Number of Floors for the Stair-Use Activity Type | Estimated BDNF Δ (in Blood Serum) * |
---|---|---|---|
MICE | ≥20 min | Continuously ascend and descend 1–3 floors while performing daily chores. | ~+1000 to 1700 pg/mL (20 min) |
HIIT | 6–20 min | Ascend < 3 stories while carrying loads (e.g., boxes, bags) or ≥ 3 floors without carrying, descend load-free, and repeat. | ~+900 pg/mL (6 min) ~+3900 to 5370 pg/mL (20 min) |
Residential Building | Spatial Activity Pattern Example | Duration and Components | Activity Type | Brain Boosting Opportunity |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 floor (e.g., Bungalow) | Walking within home. | — | Light intensity | Risk factor if relying on the building to boost BDNF. No vertical structure + limited horizontal space. |
2 floors (e.g., ground + basement) | Performing laundry or daily chores: 10 trips up/down stairs over 20 min while sorting, loading, and folding clothes, or cleaning the house. | ≥20 min stairs use (continuous while performing activities). | MICE | Basement stairs provide minimal but sufficient vertical infrastructure to use when combined with daily activities. |
3 floors (e.g., townhouse, standalone) | (a) Morning routine: bedroom (3rd) → kitchen (2nd) → garage (1st) repeated during chores, meal preparation. (b) Carrying groceries or boxes upstairs. | (a) ≥20 min stairs use (continuous while performing activities). (b) 6 min stairs use while carrying loads. | (a) MICE (b) HIIT | Natural circulation integrates the stairs-based BDNF-boosting activity into daily routines. |
>3 floors (apartment building) | Taking groceries/packages from the lobby to a high-floor apartment, 2–3 trips. | 6 min stair use while carrying loads. | HIIT | High capacity but elevator competition reduces actual use. |
Office Building | Spatial Activity Pattern Example | Duration and Components | Activity Type | Brain Boosting Opportunity |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 floor | Walking to printer, break room, colleague’s desk, restroom, parking lot. | — | Light intensity | The 1-storey office layout allows movement but intensity is too low. |
3 floors | (a) Employee stairs for meetings: 1st floor office → 3rd floor conference → 2nd floor colleague, 3–4 times/day. (b) Carrying boxes/packages upstairs. | (a) — (b) 6 min stair use while carrying loads | (a) Light intensity (b) HIIT | (a) Exercise snacking (single intermittent bouts) are brief and unlikely to reach a moderate intensity threshold. (b) Some staff can benefit from stair use if their job description includes carrying packages, etc. |
>3 floors | (a,b) Stairs from 1st to 6th floor for bringing coffee, downstairs to bring papers, upstairs for a meeting. (c) Carrying packages upstairs. | (a) ≥20 min if intermittent (b) 6 min (cont.) (c) 6 min | (a) MICE (b,c) HIIT | Each ascent can be a sufficient brain booster but strong elevator preference limits use. |
Educational Building | Spatial Activity Pattern Example | Duration and Components | Activity Type | Brain Boosting Opportunity |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 floor (e.g., elementary school) | Walking between classroom, cafeteria, gym, library; outdoor movement between buildings. | — | Light-to-moderate intensity | Extensive walking space but insufficient intensity; outdoor opportunities available. Outdoor physical activity can be compensatory. |
3 floors (e.g., middle and high schools) | Class changes: 2nd floor classroom → 3rd floor lab → 1st floor cafeteria, walking hallways. | ≥20 min | MICE (walking + stairs) | Instructed circulation can create BDNF-boosting opportunities. |
>3 floors (e.g., university buildings) | (a) Ground floor lecture → 6th floor seminar, walking hallways to the classroom. | 6 min | HIIT (ascent + either walking or descent) | Students often carry backbacks that can increase the intensity. |
Hospital Building | Spatial Activity Pattern Example | Duration and Components | Activity Type | Brain Boosting Opportunity |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 floor (e.g., outpatient clinic) | Nurse walking between exam rooms, supply closet, reception, lab throughout shift. | — | Light intensity | Substantial movement opportunity but insufficient intensity for BDNF elevation. |
≥3 floors (e.g., community hospital, medical centre) | (a) Healthcare worker: e.g., medication room (2nd) → patient rooms (3rd) → supply (1st), walking very long corridors. (b) Medical staff carrying medical equipment upstairs, pushing a wheelchair patient, trolley or stretcher. | (a) ≥20 min (cont.) (b) 6–20 min | (a) low or MICE (b) MICE or HIIT | (a) Healthcare workers naturally accumulate movement; stairs add intensity, but the non-continuous use prevents reaching a MICE or HIIT type. (b) Some medical staff can reach a MICE or HIIT activity if they carry medical equipment upstairs or push a wheelchair patient, trolley or stretcher. |
Commercial Building | Spatial Activity Pattern Example | Duration and Components | Activity Type | Brain Boosting Opportunity |
---|---|---|---|---|
1, 3 or >3 floors | Shoppers browse stores across a large footprint. | — | Light-to-moderate intensity | Extensive walking space available, but browsing shops and using escalators reduce the activity intensity. |
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© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Khalil, M.H.; Steemers, K. Brain Booster Buildings: Modelling Stairs’ Use as a Daily Booster of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor. Buildings 2025, 15, 3730. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15203730
Khalil MH, Steemers K. Brain Booster Buildings: Modelling Stairs’ Use as a Daily Booster of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor. Buildings. 2025; 15(20):3730. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15203730
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhalil, Mohamed Hesham, and Koen Steemers. 2025. "Brain Booster Buildings: Modelling Stairs’ Use as a Daily Booster of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor" Buildings 15, no. 20: 3730. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15203730
APA StyleKhalil, M. H., & Steemers, K. (2025). Brain Booster Buildings: Modelling Stairs’ Use as a Daily Booster of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor. Buildings, 15(20), 3730. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15203730