Unraveling Tourist Behavioral Intentions in Historic Urban Built Environment: The Mediating Role of Perceived Value via SOR Model in Macau’s Heritage Sites

Abstract

In response to growing concerns about overtourism and the need for sustainable heritage tourism, this study investigates how external environmental stimuli affect tourists’ perceived value and behavioral intentions in historic urban environments. Using the Stimulus–Organism–Response (SOR) model as the theoretical framework, and based on 275 valid questionnaires collected from five major sites in the Historic Center of Macau, this study explores the direct and indirect relationships among four types of environmental stimuli (physical factors, social activities, environmental atmosphere, and information and services), perceived value, and behavioral intentions. The results of structural equation modeling (SEM) indicate that all four stimuli significantly influence perceived value and behavioral intentions. Among them, physical factors exert the strongest influence on perceived value (β = 0.291, p < 0.001), while social activities are the most influential predictor of behavioral intentions (β = 0.225, p < 0.01). Perceived value plays a significant mediating role in all relationships, with the largest mediation effect found in the path from physical factors to behavioral intentions (27.99%), followed by environmental atmosphere (24.80%), information and services (22.62%), and social activities (11.66%). These findings validate the applicability of the SOR model in heritage tourism contexts and highlight the central role of perceived value in shaping tourist behavior. Theoretically, this study advances our understanding of how multidimensional environmental stimuli contribute to value-based decision-making in tourism. Practically, it provides actionable insights for urban planners and heritage managers to design environments that promote deeper engagement and foster sustainable tourist behavior in high-density historic destinations like Macau.

1. Introduction

Historic urban areas are increasingly recognized as important cultural landscapes that simultaneously bear witness to the past and function as dynamic spaces for contemporary tourism. Cities such as Kyoto (Japan), Dubrovnik (Croatia), and Quebec City (Canada) have become globally renowned heritage destinations. Yet, with their popularity comes the pressing issue of overtourism [1], which threatens the physical integrity of monuments, disrupts local communities, and undermines the authenticity and sustainability of the heritage experience. Understanding how tourists perceive and respond to such environments—and how these perceptions can be shaped through spatial, cultural, and service interventions—has thus become a critical concern in both academic and policy domains.

This concern is particularly urgent in Macau, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2005. The city has witnessed a dramatic resurgence in visitor numbers: according to official data from the Statistics and Census Service of the Macau SAR Government, over 34.92 million visitors arrived in 2024, and the number is expected to reach 38–39 million in 2025 [2]. This influx exerts mounting pressure on the Historic Center of Macau, raising alarms about overcrowding, physical wear on heritage sites, and reduced cultural quality of the visitor experience. These issues reflect broader global challenges in heritage tourism, where cultural assets risk becoming over-commercialized and degraded through excessive or poorly managed visitation.

To address these challenges, governments are calling for more integrated, sustainable approaches to heritage tourism. In China, the Central Committee of the Communist Party and the State Council issued the Guidelines on Improving the Conservation and Inheritance of Historic and Cultural Heritage in Rural and Urban Development (2022) [3], which set the goal of establishing a comprehensive heritage protection and utilization system by 2035. This policy underscores the need for not only physical conservation but also enhanced visitor experience and public engagement. Therefore, exploring how environmental stimuli influence tourists’ behavior in historic urban settings is not only an academic imperative but also a strategic policy need.

Although the existing literature has addressed heritage tourism from various angles—such as sustainable development [4,5,6,7], community participation [8,9,10,11], cultural identity [12,13,14], and economic valuation [15,16,17]—few studies have systematically examined the micro-level mechanisms that drive tourist behavior. In particular, how external environmental stimuli—including physical features, atmosphere, social activities, and services—are internalized as perceived value and translated into behavioral intentions remains underexplored. Existing studies confirm that a high-quality experiential environment can enhance satisfaction and loyalty [18], yet few have embedded these findings within a robust theoretical framework.

To address this gap, this study applies the Stimulus–Organism–Response (SOR) model, a theoretical framework from environmental psychology that explains how external stimuli (e.g., architectural features, ambient cues, social events) affect internal states (e.g., perceptions, emotions), which in turn shape behavioral responses (e.g., revisiting, recommending) [19]. Specifically, this study examines how four categories of environmental stimuli—physical factors, environmental atmosphere, social activities, and information and services—influence tourists’ perceived value and behavioral intentions in the Historic Center of Macau.

Macau offers a compelling context for such investigation. As a historic port city, it embodies a unique spatial and cultural hybridity, shaped by centuries of Sino–Portuguese interaction. Its compact scale, high visitor density, and architectural richness make it a living laboratory for observing how tourists respond to environmental cues. Moreover, Macau faces challenges similar to those encountered by Kyoto, Dubrovnik, and Quebec City, including managing high tourism volumes in fragile heritage settings. Insights from Macau are therefore not only locally relevant but also globally transferable to other heritage-rich cities balancing conservation and tourism.

Accordingly, this study addresses the following research questions:

(1)

How do different dimensions of environmental stimuli affect tourists’ perceived value in a historic urban setting?

(2)

How does perceived value mediate the relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioral intentions?

(3)

Which types of environmental stimuli are most effective in fostering desirable tourist behaviors?

Based on a questionnaire survey of visitors to five major attractions in the Historic Center of Macau analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM), this study makes several contributions. Theoretically, it extends the application of the SOR model to heritage tourism, operationalizes environmental stimuli in a heritage-specific context, and reveals the mediating role of perceived value in behavioral formation. Practically, it provides destination managers and policymakers with actionable insights on how to improve environmental design and visitor services to enhance value perception and encourage responsible, loyalty-based behaviors. These findings contribute to current debates on sustainable tourism, particularly in urban heritage environments at risk of being overwhelmed by mass tourism.

2. Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses

2.1. Stimulus–Organism–Response Theory

Woodworth first proposed the Stimulus–Response theory in 1929, asserting that people respond to a stimulus [20]. Skeptically, Shelby argued that, unlike machines, human beings do not interact with their environment in an automatic and seamless manner. Instead, we evaluate the environment before responding, impacting our environment in turn [21]. Adopting an environmental psychology perspective to investigate people’s internal reactions, Mehrabian and Russell [22] combined internal perception and emotional activities, or organism factors. They then proposed the SOR model, which views stimuli as antecedent variables, organisms as mediators, and responses as consequent variables, focusing on how external environmental factors affect behavior on an individual basis. Organisms are the internal processes and structures that mediate the relationship between a stimulus and a response, or the ultimate behavioral outcome of an individual, which can be positive or negative. A stimulus is an external force that affects an individual’s mental state [19]. The SOR model is an established model that describes how an individual’s internal state interacts with external stimuli to shape that individual’s behavior.

The SOR model has been widely applied in empirical tourism studies. The SOR model has been widely applied in tourism research to explain visitor behavior across diverse contexts: In virtual reality (VR) tourism, Kim et al. [23] extended the SOR model to explore how authentic experiences (stimuli) influence tourists’ cognitive and affective responses (organism), which in turn mediate attachment and visit intention (response). The study revealed that cognitive responses had a stronger impact on VR destination visit intention than affective responses. For heritage tourism, Sthapit et al. [24] applied the SOR framework to identify antecedents of memorable heritage tourism experiences (MHTEs), finding that experiencescape, co-creation, education, and photography (stimuli) positively drive MHTEs (organism), which enhances place attachment (response). In sustainable tourism, Wang et al. [25] integrated embodied cognition theory with the SOR model, demonstrating that sensory perceptions (visual, tactile, olfactory stimuli) influence tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior (response) via memorable tourism experiences and environmental awareness (organism). Concerning world heritage conservation, Nian et al. [26] used the SOR model to show that the Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) attractiveness of heritage sites (stimulus) enhances tourists’ perceived value and destination attachment (organism), thereby promoting heritage protection behavioral intentions (response). These studies validate the SOR model’s effectiveness in capturing the mediating role of psychological processes between environmental stimuli and behavioral outcomes, providing a theoretical foundation for this study’s analysis of how external stimuli in Macau’s historic urban environment shape tourists’ perceived value and behavioral intentions.

2.2. Perceived Value

From the customer’s viewpoint, Zeithaml [27] introduced the notion of customer perceived value, which refers to a customer’s overall evaluation of a product’s or service’s usefulness, considering the balance between the benefits perceived and the sacrifices made to acquire the product. Later research broadened the concept’s application to various fields, including tourism. In tourism studies, perceived value is understood as a tourist’s comprehensive evaluation of a destination, which considers the perceived benefits or effectiveness of the location and the sacrifices required to visit the location. The notion of perceived value offers a theoretical framework for evaluating tourism products from the tourist’s viewpoint [28]. It is frequently employed as a reliable indicator for predicting tourists’ positive actions and loyalty to a destination [29]. Additionally, perceived value is considered essential for understanding tourists’ emotional reactions and subsequent travel behavior, which can be leveraged to enhance a destination’s competitiveness [30,31,32]. In respect to cultural heritage tourism, perceived value involves the cost of time and money as well as physical and mental utility. The significant influence of perceived value on tourist satisfaction has made it a crucial element in the planning of cultural heritage and the management of heritage tourism [33].

2.3. Conceptual Framework

The Stimulus–Organism–Response (SOR) model offers a robust theoretical foundation for understanding how individuals respond to environmental cues. In this framework, stimuli (S) represent external environmental inputs, which are processed internally by the organism (O)—through cognitive evaluations and emotional reactions—resulting in a behavioral response (R). Applied to heritage tourism, the SOR model captures how tourists interpret destination features, form internal perceptions such as perceived value, and ultimately decide whether to revisit, recommend, or deepen their engagement with the destination. Accordingly, this study employs the SOR framework to explore how external environmental stimuli within the Historic Center of Macau shape tourists’ perceived value and subsequent behavioral intentions.

Prior research has conceptualized environmental stimuli in multiple ways. Yao et al. [34] outlined destination image in terms of attractions, services, natural settings, and social context. Tsaur et al. [35] proposed the idea of recreationist–environment fit, dividing environmental inputs into six types such as natural resources, social opportunities, and infrastructural conditions. Liu et al. [36], integrating SOR and TPB theories, identified four stimulus types relevant to memorial spaces: morphological elements, environmental atmosphere, social interaction, and media information.

Despite their differences, these studies collectively suggest a converging structure of external stimuli, generally encompassing four domains: (1) physical/morphological factors, (2) atmospheric and emotional cues, (3) social and participatory experiences, and (4) informational and service-oriented elements. However, these dimensions have typically been examined in isolation or context-specific ways. What remains lacking is a synthesized framework that captures their interrelated impact, especially in culturally hybrid and spatially dense heritage cities like Macau.

Based on this synthesis, this study categorizes external environmental stimuli into four interrelated dimensions: physical factors, environmental atmosphere, social activities, and information and services. Each dimension is informed by prior research and adapted to reflect the characteristics of urban heritage tourism environments: Physical factors include historical architecture, natural resources, cultural relics, and infrastructure, which form the tangible spatial and visual basis of the tourist experience. Environmental atmosphere captures the affective and immersive quality of the site, including historical ambiance, scene-specific esthetics, spatial harmony, and environmental comfort. These cues evoke emotional resonance and attachment. Social activities encompass cultural festivals, performances, community events, and participatory interactions that enable engagement with local culture and foster meaningful experiences. Information and services refer to the provision of wayfinding, interpretive signage, digital or human guidance, and responsive services. These elements reduce uncertainty, enhance perceived control and satisfaction, and support cognitive and emotional processing, thus directly influencing perceived value and behavioral outcomes.

Together, these four dimensions represent a holistic conceptualization of the heritage tourism environment as a system of stimuli that engage tourists both cognitively and emotionally. As shown in Figure 1, the conceptual model proposes that these environmental stimuli affect tourists’ perceived value, which in turn mediates their behavioral intention.

2.4. Hypotheses

Physical stimuli—including architectural heritage, natural elements, cultural relics, and site infrastructure—are often the first points of contact between visitors and heritage destinations. These stimuli generate sensory impressions that shape tourists’ perceptions of authenticity and site quality [37,38]. Prior research indicates that visually rich and historically meaningful environments enhance perceived experiential value, which in turn increases intentions to revisit or recommend the site. Building on the literature above, this study proposes the following hypotheses:

H1: 

Physical factors show a positive relationship with perceived value.

H2: 

Physical factors show a positive relationship with behavioral intentions.

Social activities, such as festivals, community interactions, and participatory experiences, contribute to the liveliness and cultural embeddedness of heritage destinations. These experiences enable tourists to engage emotionally and socially with local culture, enhancing affective value and memory encoding [39,40]. They also facilitate the co-creation of meaning, which supports deeper psychological involvement. Building on the literature above, this study proposes the following hypotheses:

H3: 

Social activities show a positive relationship with perceived value.

H4: 

Social activities show a positive relationship with behavioral intentions.

The overall atmosphere of a heritage site—including visual harmony, historical ambiance, and emotional tone—acts as an affective stimulus that activates emotional regulation processes. A coherent and emotionally resonant atmosphere strengthens place attachment and enhances the sense of immersion, both of which have been shown to affect perceived value and behavioral outcomes [41,42,43]. Building on the literature above, this study proposes the following hypotheses:

H5: 

Environmental atmosphere shows a positive relationship with perceived value.

H6: 

Environmental atmosphere shows a positive relationship with behavioral intentions.

Informational and service-related elements—such as signage, interpretive aids, staff responsiveness, and digital tools—serve both instrumental and experiential functions. These elements reduce uncertainty, enhance orientation, and build visitor trust [44,45]. As such, they facilitate deeper engagement with the site, improve cognitive clarity, and elevate overall perceived value and post-visit behaviors. Building on the literature above, this study proposes the following hypotheses:

H7: 

Information and services show a positive relationship with perceived value.

H8: 

Information and services show a positive relationship with behavioral intentions.

In the SOR model, the organism represents the internal state through which external stimuli are interpreted. Perceived value captures the trade-off between perceived benefits and costs and is widely recognized as a key mediator linking environmental attributes to behavioral outcomes. A variety of tourism studies have confirmed this mediating mechanism across different experiential domains [46,47,48,49]. Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H9: 

Perceived value mediates the relationship between physical factors and behavioral intentions.

H10: 

Perceived value mediates the relationship between social activities and behavioral intentions.

H11: 

Perceived value mediates the relationship between environmental atmosphere and behavioral intentions.

H12: 

Perceived value mediates the relationship between information and services and behavioral intentions.

Finally, perceived value itself is considered a robust and consistent predictor of tourist behavior. When visitors perceive their experience as worthwhile, they are more likely to revisit, recommend, and maintain psychological attachment to the destination [50,51,52]. Building on the literature above, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H13: 

Perceived value shows a positive relationship with behavioral intentions.

3. Methodology

3.1. Research Object

This study was conducted in the Historic Center of Macau, a UNESCO World Heritage Site that receives a consistently high volume of visitors and has well-documented spatial boundaries and heritage zoning. These characteristics make it a suitable setting for conducting an empirical test of the SOR model in a real-world, high-density heritage tourism context.

From a methodological perspective, Macau offers several advantages for data collection and behavioral observation. First, its compact urban scale allows researchers to efficiently access multiple heritage attractions within walking distance, ensuring consistent environmental exposure among respondents. Second, the city attracts a large and diverse flow of tourists enabling the collection of a substantial sample within a relatively short timeframe. Third, Macau’s heterogeneous heritage environment provides a rich context for evaluating how tourists respond to various types of environmental stimuli.

Focusing on the Historic Center of Macau, this study explored tourist behavior in five representative tourist attractions: the Ruins of St. Paul’s, Na Tcha Temple, Travessa da Paixão (also known as the Street of Passion), Mount Fortress, and Senado Square. According to the Macau Government Tourism Office, the Ruins of St. Paul’s, Na Tcha Temple, Travessa da Paixão, and Mount Fortress are some of the most popular stops along its “World Heritage Tour in Central District.” Meanwhile, according to a 2022 Macau Government Tourism Office press release, Senado Square is the most popular attraction among the Macau New Eight Scenic Spots. The five selected sites were chosen based on three criteria: (1) cultural representativeness (covering both Chinese and Portuguese heritage); (2) high visitor volume and accessibility; (3) diversity of heritage experience types, including religious, architectural, scenic, and community-based interactions. These sites collectively reflect the breadth of Macau’s heritage tourism offerings, ranging from symbolic landmarks to immersive historical environments.

3.2. Measurements

McCormick and Tinsley [53] suggest that an optimal sample size should be ten times the number of items in a questionnaire. Additionally, each variable needs to be measured by at least three items. This approach ensures an adequate sample size for conducting structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis. To complement this approach, a statistical power analysis was conducted using the pwrSEM v0.12 software developed by Wang et al. [54], which employs Monte Carlo simulations tailored for SEM models. The simulation results indicated that a sample size exceeding 200 achieves sufficient statistical power (above 0.80). Therefore, both the empirical rule and the simulation-based power analysis were employed to ensure that the sample size in this study met the methodological requirements for reliable SEM analysis. In this study, six variables were selected, requiring a minimum of 18 measurement items. Based on the literature, 20 measurement items were selected, with some items paraphrased to ensure alignment with the study’s research background and objectives.

The variables in this study are organized into three main dimensions: external environmental stimuli, which includes physical factors, social activities, environmental atmosphere, and information and services; perceived value; and behavioral intentions.

Table 1. Description of variables and items.

Variable	Item	Source
Physical factors	A1: The historic urban area has abundant natural landscape resources.	Liu et al. (2023) [36]; Ramseook-Munhurrun et al. (2015) [37]; Cai and Cheng (2024) [55]
	A2: The historic urban area has multiple historical and cultural buildings.
	A3: The historic urban area has a well-developed infrastructure.
	A4: The historic urban area has abundant cultural relic resources.
Social activities	B1: The historic urban area provides diverse recreational activities.	Liu et al. (2023) [36]; Ramseook-Munhurrun et al. (2015) [37]; Wu and Li (2017) [38]; Wang and Leou (2017) [56]
	B2: The historic urban area provides various types of cultural exchanges.
	B3: The historic urban area regularly hosts cultural activities, such as folk ceremonies, festive celebrations, and performances.
	B4: The historic urban area blends harmoniously with the daily life of local residents.
Environmental atmosphere	C1: The signs at the historic urban area are esthetically appealing and blend seamlessly into the overall environment.	Liu et al. (2023) [36]; Ramseook-Munhurrun et al. (2015) [37]
	C2: The background music and lighting design of the historic urban area create a strong scenario-specific atmosphere.
	C3: A strong historic and cultural atmosphere is created around the historic urban area through the use of color, decorations, and cultural symbols.
	C4: The historic urban area is clean, hygienic, and comfortable in general.
Information and services	D1: The historic urban area provides convenient information guidance.	Liu et al. (2023) [36]; Wu and Li (2017) [38]; Li and Shang (2020) [57]
	D2: The historic urban area provides various information media.
	D3: The historic urban area provides comprehensive information and services for tourists.
	D4: The service personnel of the historic urban area behave with proper etiquette.
Perceived value	E1: Visiting the historic urban area is highly beneficial (as I gain more experience and knowledge).	Pandža Bajs (2015) [28]; Wu and Li (2017) [38]
	E2: Visiting the historic urban area is pleasant.
	E3: Spending time and money touring the historic urban area is worthwhile.
Behavioral intentions	F1: I will share my experience of this trip with others.	Wu and Li (2017) [38]; Kolar and Zabkar (2010) [58]; Al Ziadat (2015) [59]; Tosun et al. (2015) [60]
	F2: I would recommend the historic urban area to others af-ter this trip.
	F3: I will revisit the historic urban area when the opportuni-ty arises.

outlines the variables and items utilized in this research.

3.3. Data Collection

An initial questionnaire was designed using established scales, and a preliminary survey was conducted in which 50 questionnaires were distributed. After excluding invalid responses, 46 valid questionnaires were retained. Based on this preliminary survey, the content and wording were revised to create the final version of the questionnaire. The formal survey targeted tourists who had visited the Historic Center of Macau and was conducted from 27 December 2023 to 17 January 2024, using a combination of offline paper questionnaires, online computer-assisted web interviewing (CAWI), and computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI). A total of 289 questionnaires were collected, with 275 deemed valid.

The final version of the questionnaire comprised 30 items across four sections—demographic information (8 items), external stimuli (16 items pertaining to physical factors, social activities, environmental atmosphere, and information and services), perceived value (3 items), and tourist behavioral intentions (3 items). Specifically, demographic information included name and an ordinal scale that included items such as gender, age, education level, occupation, and place of residence. Items pertaining to the six variables—physical factors, social activities, environmental atmosphere, information and services, perceived value, and behavioral intentions—were adapted from previously validated scales, with the wording adjusted to fit the context of the research. All items were assessed using a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 indicated “strongly disagree” and 5 represented “strongly agree”.

Table 2. Respondents’ demographic profiles.

Category	Statistical Indicator	Sample Size	Percentage (%)
Gender	Female	141	51.27
	Male	134	48.73
Age group	Under 18	19	6.91
	18–24	78	28.36
	25–34	24	8.73
	35–44	81	29.45
	45–60	29	10.55
	Over 60	44	16.00
Number of Visits to This Place	Three or more times	54	19.64
	Within three times	93	33.81
	The first time	128	46.55
Mode of Travel	With partner	50	18.18
	With family	89	32.36
	With friends	58	21.10
	Travel agency package	22	8.00
	Alone	56	20.36
Source of Information About This Place	TV	36	13.09
	Travel agency	30	10.91
	Tourist brochure	16	5.82
	Magazine	17	6.18
	Network	95	34.55
	Friends and family recommendations	67	24.36
	Other	14	5.09
Education Level	Junior high school and below	8	2.91
	High school or technical school	25	9.09
	Associate college	22	8.00
	Undergraduate	145	52.73
	Master’s and above	75	27.27
Occupation	Professional technical personnel	51	18.55
	Institution staff	32	11.64
	Business executives (including private business owners)	49	17.82
	Company staff	34	12.36
	Students	22	8.00
	Housewives	15	5.45
	Retired personnel	28	10.18
	Freelancers	36	13.09
	Other	8	2.91
Average Monthly Income	3000 and below	23	8.36
	3000–4999	41	14.91
	5000–6999	49	17.82
	7000–8999	32	11.64
	9000–10,000	52	18.91
	10,000 and above	78	28.36

presents the demographic data obtained from the survey. Regarding gender distribution, 134 respondents were male, representing 48.73% of the total, while the remaining 141 respondents (51.27%) were female, indicating a slightly higher number of female tourists to the area. Overall, the gender distribution among tourists was fairly balanced. In terms of age, tourists aged 18–24 accounted for 28.36% of the sample, while those aged 35–44 accounted for 29.45%, suggesting that most tourists were in the young to middle-aged demographic. Regarding the number of visits, 19.63% of respondents had visited the Historic Center of Macau three or more times, while 33.82% had visited the area at least once but less than three times, confirming that nearly 53% of respondents had revisited the area. In terms of how the tourists learned about the destination, the majority reported hearing about the Historic Center of Macau from their friends and relatives (24.36%) or the Internet (34.54%). Finally, the majority of respondents traveled with their families and friends.

While the sample is primarily composed of young and middle-aged domestic Chinese tourists, this distribution is highly consistent with Macau’s actual visitor demographics during the study period, as reported by official tourism statistics [61]. As such, the sample provides contextually valid insights into the behavioral patterns of the city’s core tourist market. Rather than aiming for broad generalizability, this study focuses on understanding how environmental stimuli influence value perception and behavioral intention within a specific, high-frequency user group, which is particularly relevant for managing Macau’s current tourism challenges.

4. Analysis and Results

This study surveyed tourists who had visited five representative attractions of the Historic Center of Macau, namely, the Ruins of St. Paul’s, Na Tcha Temple, the Travessa da Paixão, the Mount Fortress, and Senado Square. This study utilized reliability and validity analysis, path analysis, and mediation analysis to examine the connections between stimuli, organisms, and the behavioral intentions of tourists. Prior to a formal data analysis, preliminary questionnaires were analyzed to verify the data.

This section presents the empirical analysis of the SEM, testing the research hypotheses and mediating effects to interpret the data. It explores how stimuli impacted individual factors of tourists and, in turn, influenced their behavioral intentions.

4.1. Reliability and Validity Analysis

This study employed IBM SPSS Statistics 25.0 to assess the reliability and validity of the 275 valid questionnaires.

Reliability analysis was conducted to determine the consistency of the responses, ensuring that participants accurately answered the scale-based questions. Cronbach’s α coefficients for the six variables all exceeded 0.8, signifying high data reliability and robust questionnaire consistency.

Validity analysis was performed to evaluate whether the research items were logical and meaningful. This included factor analysis and a comprehensive evaluation of indicators such as the KMO value, communalities, variance explained, and factor loadings. The KMO value was greater than 0.6 at 0.897, indicating the suitability of data extraction. Communalities were utilized to filter out unsuitable research items, but none were excluded since all communalities exceeded 0.7, surpassing the 0.4 threshold that indicates the effective extraction of item information. The variance explained value measures the extent of information captured. After rotation, a cumulative variance explained value of 74.038% (>50%) was achieved, confirming that the information from the research items was effectively captured. Factor loadings measure the relationship between factors and items. When the absolute value of the factor loading is greater than 0.4, it indicates a relationship between the item and the factor. In this study, all measurement items exhibited factor loadings exceeding 0.7 and clustered around a single factor, allowing the variables to be grouped into six distinct factors.

Table 3. Reliability and validity analysis.

Variable	Item	Cronbach’s Alpha	Common Factor Variance
Physical factors	A1: The historic urban area has abundant natural landscape resources.	0.891	0.761
	A2: The historic urban area has multiple historical and cultural buildings.		0.723
	A3: The historic urban area has a well-developed infrastructure.		0.805
	A4: The historic urban area has abundant cultural relic resources.		0.787
Social activities	B1: The historic urban area provides diverse recreational activities.	0.881	0.742
	B2: The historic urban area provides various types of cultural exchanges.		0.729
	B3: The historic urban area regularly hosts cultural activities, such as folk ceremonies, festive celebrations, and performances.		0.767
	B4: The historic urban area blends harmoniously with the daily life of local residents.		0.719
Environmental atmosphere	C1: The signs at the historic urban area are esthetically appealing and blend seamlessly into the overall environment.	0.870	0.720
	C2: The background music and lighting design of the historic urban area create a strong scenario-specific atmosphere.		0.776
	C3: A strong historic and cultural atmosphere is created around the historic urban area through the use of color, decorations, and cultural symbols.		0.668
	C4: The historic urban area is clean, hygienic, and comfortable in general.		0.755
Information and services	D1: The historic urban area provides convenient information guidance.	0.865	0.724
	D2: The historic urban area provides various information media.		0.736
	D3: The historic urban area provides comprehensive information and services for tourists.		0.751
	D4: The service personnel of the historic urban area behave with proper etiquette.		0.697
Perceived value	E1: Visiting the historic urban area is highly beneficial (as I gain more experience and knowledge).	0.828	0.748
	E2: Visiting the historic urban area is pleasant.		0.742
	E3: Spending time and money touring the historic urban area is worthwhile.		0.745
Behavioral intentions	F1: I will share my experience of this trip with others.	0.803	0.744
	F2: I would recommend the historic urban area to others after this trip.		0.727
	F3: I will revisit the historic urban area if the opportunity arises.		0.724

shows the reliability and validity values for each variable.

4.2. Model Fit

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted using IBM SPSS Amos 24. As presented in

Table 4. Factor loading coefficients, AVE, and CR.

Variable	Item	Standard Load Factor (Std. Estimate)	AVE	Combined Reliability
Physical factors	A1: The historic urban area has abundant natural landscape resources.	0.773	0.672	0.891
	A2: The historic urban area has multiple historical and cultural buildings.	0.777
	A3: The historic urban area has a well-developed infrastructure.	0.872
	A4: The historic urban area has abundant cultural relic resources.	0.854
Social activities	B1: The historic urban area provides diverse recreational activities.	0.837	0.650	0.881
	B2: The historic urban area provides various types of cultural exchanges.	0.818
	B3: The historic urban area regularly hosts cultural activities, such as folk ceremonies, festive celebrations, and performances.	0.791
	B4: The historic urban area blends harmoniously with the daily life of local residents.	0.777
Environmental atmosphere	C1: The signs at the historic urban area are esthetically appealing and blend seamlessly into the overall environment.	0.775	0.633	0.873
	C2: The background music and lighting design of the historic urban area create a strong scenario-specific atmosphere.	0.857
	C3: A strong historic and cultural atmosphere is created around the historic urban area through the use of color, decorations, and cultural symbols.	0.723
	C4: The historic urban area is clean, hygienic, and comfortable in general.	0.822
Information and services	D1: The historic urban area provides convenient information guidance.	0.784	0.616	0.865
	D2: The historic urban area provides various information media.	0.827
	D3: The historic urban area provides comprehensive information and services for tourists.	0.775
	D4: The service personnel of the historic urban area behave with proper etiquette.	0.753
Perceived value	E1: Visiting the historic urban area is highly beneficial (as I gain more experience and knowledge).	0.782	0.618	0.829
	E2: Visiting the historic urban area is pleasant.	0.786
	E3: Spending time and money touring the historic urban area is worthwhile.	0.791
Behavioral intentions	F1: I will share my experience of this trip with others.	0.767	0.575	0.803
	F2: I would recommend the historic urban area to others after this trip.	0.753
	F3: I will revisit the historic urban area if the opportunity arises.	0.756

, the standardized factor loading coefficients for all six variables exceeded 0.7, with the lowest being 0.723. The average variance extracted (AVE) values were above 0.5, specifically 0.672, 0.650, 0.633, 0.616, 0.618, and 0.575. Additionally, the composite reliability (CR) values were all greater than 0.8, recorded at 0.891, 0.881, 0.873, 0.865, 0.829, and 0.803. These results demonstrate that all three metrics surpassed general thresholds, indicating strong convergent validity of the data.

In the assessment of model fit, model fit is good if the chi-square divided by the degrees of freedom is lower than 3; the goodness of fit (GFI), comparative fit index (CFI), normed fit index (NFI), and non-normed fit index (NNFI) are larger than 0.9; the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) does not exceed 0.08; and the rock mass rating (RMR) is lower than 0.05. In this study, the model’s chi-square divided by the degrees of freedom (χ²/df) was 1.287; the RMSEA was only 0.032; the RMR was 0.046; and the CFI, NFI, and NNFI were 0.9 at 0.983, 0.929, and 0.980, respectively. Therefore, the model had a good fit and was suitable for further analysis.

In

Table 5. Discriminant validity.

	Physical Factors	Social Activities	Environmental Atmosphere	Information and Services	Perceived Value	Behavioral Intentions
Physical factors	0.820
Social activities	0.284	0.806
Environmental atmosphere	0.311	0.279	0.796
Information and services	0.280	0.384	0.415	0.785
Perceived value	0.450	0.385	0.476	0.473	0.786
Behavioral intentions	0.382	0.445	0.421	0.445	0.497	0.759

, the diagonal blue and bold numbers represent the square roots of the AVE values for each variable. These values are all higher than the highest absolute correlation coefficient between any pair of variables, indicating that the model has strong discriminant validity.

4.3. Hypothesis Testing

Following the model fit assessment, IBM SPSS Amos 24 was employed to evaluate the structural equation model. Path coefficients between the variables were analyzed to test the proposed hypotheses, with the results detailed in

Table 6. SEM path analysis results.

Measurement Relationship X→Y			Non-Standardized Path Coefficient	SE	z (CR Value)	p	Standardized Path Coefficient	Conclusion
Physical factors	→	Perceived value	0.242 ***	0.053	4.560	0.000	0.291	Support
Physical factors	→	Behavioral intentions	0.130 *	0.061	2.148	0.032	0.150	Support
Social activities	→	Perceived value	0.122 *	0.053	2.291	0.022	0.149	Support
Social activities	→	Behavioral intentions	0.192 **	0.059	3.256	0.001	0.225	Support
Environmental atmosphere	→	Perceived value	0.254 ***	0.065	3.906	0.000	0.272	Support
Environmental atmosphere	→	Behavioral intentions	0.144 *	0.072	1.990	0.047	0.148	Support
Information and services	→	Perceived value	0.241 ***	0.066	3.651	0.000	0.268	Support
Information and services	→	Behavioral intentions	0.192 **	0.074	2.597	0.009	0.205	Support
Perceived value	→	Behavioral intentions	0.241 *	0.098	2.462	0.014	0.232	Support

Note: * indicates significance at the p < 0.05 level; ** indicates significance at the p < 0.01 level. *** indicates significance at the p < 0.001 level.

and Figure 2. Generally, a p-value below 0.05 signifies a significant effect between variables, supporting the validity of the corresponding hypothesis.

As shown in Table 6 and Figure 2, these relationships are visually represented with solid arrows and corresponding path coefficients. The diagram clearly depicts the structural associations between external environmental stimuli, perceived value, and behavioral intention. Physical factors exhibited the strongest direct effect on perceived value (β = 0.291, p < 0.001), while social activities had the highest direct impact on behavioral intentions (β = 0.225, p < 0.01). Environmental atmosphere (β = 0.272, p < 0.001) and information/services (β = 0.268, p < 0.001) significantly influenced perceived value, with corresponding direct effects on behavioral intentions (β = 0.148 and 0.205, p < 0.05). Perceived value directly influenced behavioral intentions (β = 0.232, p < 0.05).

4.4. Mediating Effect Test

To further validate the mediating effects of the hypothesized model pathways, this study employed the Bootstrap method with 5000 resampling iterations and a 95% confidence interval to test for mediating effects. Mediation effects were tested based on whether the bootstrap 95% confidence interval included zero. If the confidence interval did not include zero, the mediation effect is considered significant, supporting the mediation hypothesis. Conversely, if the interval includes zero, the mediation effect is not significant, and the hypothesis is not supported. Moreover, if paths a and b are significant, and path c’ is also significant, with a × b and c’ having the same sign, the mediation effect is considered partial [62].

The results, as shown in

Table 7. Mediation effect test results.

Item	c Total Effect	a	b	a × b Mediating Effect Value	a × b (Boot SE)	a × b (95% BootCI)	c’ Direct Effect	Conclusion	Effectiveness Ratio
A→E→F	0.166 **	0.236 **	0.197 **	0.047	0.020	0.018~0.095	0.120 *	partial mediation	27.987%
B→E→F	0.244 **	0.144 **	0.197 **	0.028	0.014	0.006~0.062	0.215 **	partial mediation	11.662%
C→E→F	0.203 **	0.255 **	0.197 **	0.050	0.019	0.017~0.090	0.153 **	partial mediation	24.802%
D→E→F	0.204 **	0.233 **	0.197 **	0.046	0.018	0.016~0.087	0.158 **	partial mediation	22.618%

Note: 1. A = physical factors; B = social activities; C = environmental atmosphere; D = information and services; E = perceived value; F = behavioral intentions. 2. Bootstrap type: percentile bootstrap method. 3. * indicates significance at the p < 0.05 level; ** indicates significance at the p < 0.01 level.

, indicated partial mediation for all four pathways in the mediating effect test, suggesting that physical factors, social activities, environmental atmosphere, and information and services not only directly influenced behavioral intentions but also indirectly acted on behavioral intentions through perceived value. Among the pathways, physical factors exerted the largest indirect effect via perceived value (27.987%), followed by environmental atmosphere (24.802%) and information/services (22.618%). Social activities had the smallest mediation proportion (11.662%) but the strongest direct effect on behavioral intentions (β = 0.225, Figure 2). As visualized in Figure 2’s mediating paths, perceived value acted as a crucial mediator, aligning with prior research [46,48].

5. Conclusions and Discussion

This study used the SOR theory to create a model that explains the impact of external stimuli on visitors’ perceived value and trip behavioral intentions in historic urban locations. More specifically, this study used IBM SPSS Statistics 25 and IMB AMOS SPSS 24.0 to investigate how tourists evaluated the external environmental factors of the Historic Center of Macau and identify whether the evaluation would lead the tourists to respond to their perceived value of the area and ultimately influenced their behavioral intentions. The findings can be summarized as follows.

First, this study examined how external stimuli from the historic urban area affect perceived value. It was found that physical factors, social activities, environmental atmosphere, and information and services all had significant and direct positive effects on tourists’ perceived value. Physical factors exhibited the largest influence on tourists’ perceived value because these factors—including architecture, physical spaces, cultural relic resources, and facilities—are crucial to the appeal and perceived value of a tourist destination. They are the physical elements that tourists are exposed to at a destination. Together, the glamourous architecture, comfortable spaces, abundant cultural relics, and well-developed facilities jointly contribute to the essential attractiveness and competitiveness of a tourist destination, providing tourists with diverse travel experiences.

Second, regarding the influence of the external stimuli of the historical urban area on behavioral intentions, the results show that physical factors, social activities, environmental atmosphere, and information and services all had a significant and direct positive effect on tourists’ behavioral intentions. Social activities have the most influence on tourists’ behavioral intentions because social activities are more directly and closely associated with interpersonal aspects and directly influence tourists’ emotional experience and investment. Social activities available at historic urban areas include cultural and festive celebrations, traditional performances, and social events. These activities provide opportunities for the tourists to communicate and interact with residents and other tourists, enhancing their travel experiences and cultivating a sense of belonging. This observation is consistent with studies conducted in East Asian heritage destinations such as Kyoto’s Gion Festival [63] and Seoul’s Bukchon Hanok Village [64], where socially engaging experiences shaped revisit intentions more strongly than architectural or environmental features. In contrast, studies on Western heritage cities, such as Dubrovnik [65] and Quebec City [66], tend to emphasize physical authenticity and conservation. These comparisons suggest that in East Asian contexts, the performative and relational qualities of heritage may be stronger behavioral drivers.

Third, perceived value significantly and directly influenced tourists’ behavioral intentions, suggesting that perceived value directly shapes tourists’ attitudes and actions by reflecting their understanding and assessment of a destination. In the context of historic urban areas, perceived value primarily relates to tourists’ perceptions and appreciation of the area’s historical, cultural, and natural significance. It includes tourists’ appraisal of historic buildings, their respect for cultural traditions, and their love for natural landscapes. When tourists perceive a destination as having a rich historical and cultural background, unique scenery, and deep cultural significance, they tend to harbor positive attitudes and invest emotionally in that destination, guiding their behavioral intentions towards it. Thus, the behavioral intentions of tourists are positively impacted by perceived value in a direct manner.

Fourth, regarding the influence of external stimuli on behavioral intentions, physical factors, social activities, environmental atmosphere, and information and services, analysis revealed that perceived value had a significantly positive and direct influence on tourists’ behavioral intentions and an indirect influence via perceived value. Among the stimuli, physical factors had the largest indirect effect on behavioral intentions mediated through perceived value. These findings indicate that in the context of tourism in historical districts, physical elements are the aspects that tourists directly interact with and experience during their visit. It is on this basis that they come to recognize the value of the destination, which in turn influences their behavior. However, merely perceiving the value of a historical district is not enough to captivate tourists and generate behavioral intentions. It is through the uniqueness, esthetic appeal, and historical and cultural value of the physical elements that tourists’ attention is deeply attracted. These elements allow them to relax, relieve stress, and enhance their perceived value of the destination. Consequently, tourists are more inclined to choose the destination and develop positive behavioral intentions.

Finally, in the mediation effect, four of the influence paths found in this study are supported by the existing literature: “physical factors → perceived value → behavioral intentions” and “environmental atmosphere → perceived value → behavioral intentions” is supported by Chen [46]; “information and services → perceived value → behavioral intentions” is supported by Chen et al. [47]; and “social activities → perceived value → behavioral intentions” is supported by Mao [48]. In addition, perceived value as a mediator echoes the theoretical logic of the Value–Attitude–Behavior (VAB) framework and partially overlaps with the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), which emphasizes attitude and subjective norms in determining behavior. Future studies may compare the SOR framework with these alternative models to strengthen theoretical integration and positioning.

In conclusion, this study validates the previous perspective by employing path analysis to confirm the direct influence of external stimulus factors on perceived value and behavioral intentions. The analysis demonstrated that elements such as physical aspects, social activities, environmental atmosphere, and information and services have a direct impact on tourists’ perceived value and behavioral intentions. Additionally, the mediation analysis showed that all four dimensions of external stimuli indirectly influence behavioral intentions through perceived value, underscoring the mediating role of perceived value between external stimuli and behavioral intentions.

As a tourism destination with a long history and rich heritage, the historical districts of Macau shape tourists’ behavioral intentions based on cultural, leisure, and activity venues constructed from physical elements. The emotional, intellectual, and cost-related values perceived through information and services influence these intentions. When tourists evaluate the emotional and intellectual content as well as the time and money costs, if they perceive these as exceeding expectations, they experience more positive emotions. This increases their willingness to spend time, effort, or money to visit these destinations, share their experiences with others, recommend the destination, and increase their own likelihood of revisiting. Nonetheless, this must be balanced with the emerging issue of overtourism in many heritage sites [67]. Excessive visitor volumes have led to environmental degradation and the loss of local authenticity in other UNESCO-listed cities [68,69]. Future planning for the Historic Center of Macau should proactively incorporate carrying capacity assessments and soft measures such as timed entry or cultural zoning to protect the long-term integrity of the site.

5.1. Theoretical Significance

First, this study employed the Stimulus–Organism–Response (SOR) theory to examine how external environmental stimuli influence tourists’ perceived value and behavioral intentions. Originating in environmental psychology, the SOR model captures the process by which external stimuli evoke internal emotional and cognitive reactions (organism), which in turn lead to behavioral responses. Through empirical analysis of the Historic Center of Macau, this study verified the robustness and adaptability of this model in the context of heritage tourism. Compared with more frequently used theories in tourism research—such as the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), which emphasizes intention formation based on attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, or the Value–Attitude–Behavior (VAB) framework, which highlights internal values—SOR provides a more environment-centric lens. It accounts for how tangible and atmospheric environmental cues shape sensory and affective experience, making it particularly suitable for historic urban settings where spatial and experiential design play a central role. Therefore, the adoption of the SOR framework reflects a context-specific theoretical rationale and offers conceptual clarity for understanding behavioral mechanisms driven by environmental interactions.

Second, although the SOR model offers analytical clarity, it should also be situated within the broader interdisciplinary field of neuroarchitecture. Neuroarchitecture explores how physical environments—through light, proportion, texture, sound, or rhythm—affect the neurological and psychological responses of users [70]. Scholars such as Ann Sussman [71], Stephen Kellert [72], Donald Ruggles [73], and Michael Mehaffy [74] have contributed significantly to this field, emphasizing perceptual design, biophilia, and affective neuroscience. From this perspective, the SOR model represents a simplified but practically useful behavioral scaffold within a larger spectrum of neuroscientific and spatial cognition research. Future research could integrate biometric or neurophysiological measurements into the current model by referencing the forthcoming Routledge Handbook of Neuroscience and the Built Environment [75] so as to deepen the understanding of how sensory heritage environments elicit embodied responses.

Third, this study incorporates perceived value theory as a mediating mechanism to explain how external environmental stimuli influence tourists’ behavioral intentions. Perceived value is often employed to reflect tourists’ comprehensive cognitive and affective evaluation of destination experience. By confirming its mediating role, this study enriches the theoretical application of perceived value in environmental behavior studies and supports its integration with SOR-based models.

Fourth, this research categorizes environmental stimuli into four dimensions—physical factors, social activities, environmental atmosphere, and information and services—and explores their distinct and combined effects on tourists’ perceptions and behaviors. This refined typology contributes to a more granular and comprehensive theoretical framework for future studies that aim to link destination characteristics with tourist outcomes.

Fifth, this study provides new insight into heritage tourism behavior within the context of historic urban areas. It advances the academic understanding of environmental stimuli in culturally saturated destinations and offers a conceptual toolset that can be adapted to investigate similar phenomena across diverse heritage settings, particularly those seeking to balance authenticity, experience, and sustainability.

5.2. Practical Significance

First, this study provides specific guidance for improving travel experiences at the Historic Center of Macau by identifying and analyzing key environmental stimuli that influence tourists’ perceived value and behavioral intentions. To enhance tourists’ perceived value and encourage positive behavior, actionable measures can be taken. For instance, managers could develop themed social programs, such as seasonal heritage parades, open-air street performances, and community-based workshops involving crafts or cuisine. These socially engaging formats allow for deeper emotional investment and interpersonal connection with the local culture.

Second, the findings confirm that enhancing information and service provision plays a key role in influencing tourists’ cognitive and affective evaluations. Practical strategies include implementing multilingual digital wayfinding apps, interactive e-guides linked to QR codes, and virtual storytelling tools that animate historic narratives. Complementarily, on-site staff training programs focused on hospitality and cultural literacy would reinforce a service-oriented experience.

Third, with respect to physical and spatial design, destination managers should improve the coherence and accessibility of historical environments by maintaining architectural continuity, increasing pedestrian comfort (e.g., shaded rest points, intuitive circulation), and enhancing landscape integration. These environmental improvements directly strengthen both the atmospheric and practical dimensions of the tourist experience.

Fourth, in addition to providing practical guidance for Macau, the results of this study offer valuable insights for other historical and cultural tourist destinations with similar characteristics. Based on the conclusions and suggestions of this study, other tourist destinations can combine their own features to improve their environment, enhance tourist experience, and achieve sustainable development. Spatially, managers should consider improving the coherence and comfort of the built environment—e.g., maintaining visual continuity in signage and materials, creating shaded resting nodes, and enhancing pedestrian connectivity. Moreover, efforts should be made to design socially engaging but low-impact programs that avoid overcrowding, such as dispersed festivals, timed cultural walks, or reservation-based access to sensitive areas for improving travel experiences at the Historic Center of Macau by identifying and analyzing key environmental stimuli that influence tourists’ perceived value and behavioral intentions. Managers can refer to the results of this study and optimize the physical environment, improve the quality of social activities, foster good environmental atmosphere, and improve the information and services in the area, thereby improving tourists’ travel experiences, satisfaction, and loyalty.

5.3. Study Limitations and Future Research Directions

Despite its practical and theoretical contributions, this study has several limitations. Specifically, it concentrated on the relationship between external environmental stimuli, perceived value, and behavioral intentions, while other factors that could affect travel experiences and behaviors were not taken into account. Therefore, future studies should expand the research scope to incorporate more factors that may influence travel experiences and behaviors, such as individual features and cultural differences, to obtain results that are more comprehensive and widely applicable.