Reducing Cooling Energy Demand in Saudi Arabian Residential Buildings Using Passive Design Approaches
Abstract
1. Introduction
1.1. Passive Cooling and Causes for Overheating in Buildings
1.2. Climate, Design & Energy Efficiency in Saudi Arabian Residential Buildings
1.3. Analysis and Framework for a Typical Saudi Arabian Villa
1.4. Energy Efficiency in the Region
1.5. Energy-Efficient Projects Within the Region
1.6. Research Objectives and Novelty
- Evaluate how typical Saudi residential villas perform under current and future climatic conditions.
- Assess the effectiveness of various passive and retrofit strategies- including envelope insulation, window-to-wall ratio adjustments, shading, and wind-towers, individually and in combination.
- Determine which combinations yield the most significant cooling energy reductions.
- Compare the energy performance of a standard (base-case) villa to a redesigned model (such that it could be retrofitted) in both present and future climate scenarios.
2. Methodology
2.1. Modelled Typical Villa
2.2. Assumptions
- Although travel restrictions limit direct access to a typical Saudi villa, it is generally acknowledged that residential buildings in Saudi Arabia exhibit moderate infiltration rates. A previous study assumed an Air Changes per Hour (ACH) of 0.7 [78].
- Weather files (EPW) used for testing were based in Riyadh Airport. The chosen EPW file was morphed using CCWeatherGen [79], generating prospective weather conditions based on the climate change projections from 2002 [80]. This facilitated testing parameters against current, as well as future scenarios (2050 and 2080).
- Winter clothing levels were assigned a value of 1, while summer clothing levels received a value of 0.5.
During Weekdays: Hours in the Day | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Rooms | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 |
Kitchen | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Guest | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dining | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Living | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Bedroom | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Empty 1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
During Weekends: hours in the day | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Rooms | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 |
Kitchen | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Guest | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dining | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Living | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Bedroom | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Empty 1 |
2.3. Framework: Overview of Testing Strategy
- Baseline Performance Assessment: Evaluation of the base case villa under both current and future weather conditions.
- Engineering-focused analysis: Simulation of envelope components, including glazing, wall construction, and WWR.
- Architectural-focused analysis: Testing of passive cooling features like shading and wind towers.
- Synthesized Retrofit Design: Integration of the highest-performing strategies into a redesigned model, tested for both present-day and future climatic scenarios.
2.4. Villa Simulated Base-Case Analysis (Typical Dwelling)
3. Parametric Analysis via Engineering Parameters
3.1. Input Parameters & Simulation Matrix
3.2. Results and Analysis
3.2.1. Evaluating Building Fabric
3.2.2. Evaluating Ceiling Performance
4. Parametric Analysis via Architectural Parameters
4.1. Solar Shading
Evaluating Shading Performance
4.2. Wind Tower
Evaluating Wind-Tower Performance
5. Design and Recommendation
6. Discussion
6.1. Limitations
- The economic feasibility of retrofitting (particularly for low and middle-income households) poses a substantial barrier. High-performance materials, glazing systems, and structural alterations such as windcatchers or green roofs may involve significant upfront costs that are not immediately recoverable without financial incentives or government subsidies. Cost-benefit analyses and lifecycle assessments should therefore complement technical evaluations in future studies.
- Implementation challenges remain significant. Many of the passive strategies tested here, especially those involving structural redesigns or additions, may face regulatory, architectural, or construction-related obstacles. Builder familiarity and technical capacity are also major limitations. Many construction firms in the region may lack experience with advanced insulation techniques, airtight envelope detailing, or traditional passive systems like windcatchers, which have fallen out of common practice. This skill gap can lead to poor implementation or resistance from developers accustomed to conventional, low-cost construction methods.
- Aesthetic preferences and cultural norms influence design acceptance. Features like reduced glazing, visible shading devices, or rooftop windcatchers may be perceived as unattractive or outdated by homeowners or developers seeking sleek, modern appearances. This aesthetic resistance can be a significant barrier, especially in markets where housing trends prioritize visual appeal over performance.
- Occupant behaviour plays a critical role in the energy performance of buildings. Even the most technically efficient villas can become an energy liability if occupants override thermostats, misuse windows or ventilation systems, or leave cooling units running unnecessarily. Bridging this “performance gap” requires not only smart technologies but also educational efforts to promote energy-aware behaviour among residents.
- Another limitation of this study lies in the assumption of infiltration rates on values derived from previous literature. While these assumptions offered a reasonable starting point and showed limited impact on results compared to other variables in the sensitivity analysis, they may not fully reflect the variability found in real-world conditions. Infiltration rates, for instance, are highly sensitive to construction quality, detailing, and long-term maintenance, factors that differ across projects and are often underrepresented in generalized datasets.
6.2. Future Work
6.3. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
WWR | Window to wall ratio |
SBC | Saudi Building Code |
ICC | International Code Council |
IECC | International Energy Conservation Code |
PHV | Passivhaus standard |
STV | Conventional construction |
ACH | Air changes per hour/ infiltration rate |
EPW | Energy Plus Weather Files |
INC | Insulted Concrete Wall |
TIC | Thermal Mass Concrete Wall |
ICR | Reverse Insulated Concrete Wall |
TM | Hypothetical Low U-Value Wall |
BCT | Base-case Typical |
ICB | Insulated Clay Brick |
PS | Passive Strategy |
WT | Wind Tower |
Appendix A
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Project | Building Specifications | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Qatar Passivhaus | Two 200 m2 villas compared: one built to Passivhaus standards (PHV), the other conventional (STV). PHV used 400 mm wall/roof insulation, 200 mm floor insulation, and triple glazing. PHV achieved 66% lower energy consumption than STV due to high thermal resistance and airtightness. | [60,61] |
Ecohouse GUTech Oman | Compact cylindrical form cut solar radiation by 30%. Envelope included lightweight concrete-pumice blocks, perlite infill, and compressed earth bricks. Strategic window placement (no east/west openings) supported natural ventilation and daylighting. Cooling demand reduced by 90% vs. standard walls; projected 40% energy savings overall. | [62] |
SABIC Home of Innovation: Riyadh | Featured a highly insulated, airtight envelope and 28 kW rooftop solar PV, achieving net-zero energy over 12 months. Used 40% less energy than a typical Saudi home. | [63] |
Masdar City Eco-Villa: Abu Dhabi | Used 72% less energy than a typical Abu Dhabi villa. Combined passive design, high-performance insulation, and efficient systems with rooftop solar panels. Achieved 97 kWh/m2/year energy use. | [64] |
Beirut Terraces: Lebanon | Passive cooling through staggered floor plates and deep overhangs reduced solar gain. Vegetated terraces improved air quality and microclimate. High-performance façade materials and glazing optimized daylight and thermal comfort. | [65] |
Green Social Housing Initiative: Egypt | The apartment buildings were 30% more energy-efficient than standard units. Achieved via optimized orientation, natural ventilation, thicker insulated walls, and rooftop solar PV. | [66] |
Hatta Solar Villa: Dubai | Retrofitted 554 villas with rooftop 4.5 kW solar PV systems each. The system generated approximately 3.6 GWh per year in total, reduced grid reliance, and supported Dubai’s 30% demand reduction goal by 2030. | [67] |
Trombe Wall Passive Cooling/Heating: Egypt | Retrofited an uninsulated masonry apartment block with nanomaterial-based wall insulation and double-glazed windows reduced total energy use by 47.6%. Wall insulation alone saved 23%, glazing 26%. | [68] |
Green Affordable Housing Initiative: Jordan | Retrofitted 48 homes and built 3 new low-cost green homes for vulnerable families. Upgrades included thermal insulation, double-glazing, solar water heaters, low-flow fixtures, and rainwater harvesting. Results saw noticeable energy and water savings, improved comfort, better indoor air quality, and strong community engagement. Recognized as a scalable model for affordable green housing in Arab regions. | [69] |
Residential Retrofit Strategy: Jordan | Deep retrofits (insulation, glazing, HVAC, solar water heaters) projected to cut 43% of annual electricity use and reduce national peak demand by 842 MW. Pilot homes showed improved comfort and lower bills. | [70] |
Building Parameters | Base Case Assumptions |
---|---|
Location | Riyadh, Saudi Arabia |
Height | 7.6 m |
Storey | 2 |
Form | Rectangular- spread |
Typical floor GFA | 172 m2 |
Floor- floor height | 3.5 |
Ground floor planning | Kitchen, living room, bedroom, guest and dining room |
First floor planning | Master bedroom, regular bedroom |
Window-to-wall ratio | 15% |
Typical glazed window | 1.73 m2 |
External wall | Concrete blocks (20 cm thick) |
Slabs | Concrete (20 cm thick) |
Occupancy Schedules and Analysis Considerations | |||
---|---|---|---|
Number of occupants | 4 | ||
Infiltration | 0.7 ACH | ||
Sensible loads | Living space: 180 W | Master bed: 80 W | Other bed: 80 W |
Lighting power (LED) | 2 W/m2 | ||
Occupant heat gain | Zone | Sensible heat | Latent heat |
Living | 225 | 165 | |
Bedroom | 150 | 110 | |
Kitchen | 150 | 110 |
PCS 1 | Description | Testing Parameter |
---|---|---|
PCS1 | Window-to-wall ratio | 20%: Base case |
15% | ||
10% | ||
PCS2 | Fabric | Base-case |
Insulated concrete wall | ||
Insulated- clay brick wall | ||
PCS3 | Glazing | Single glazed: Base case |
Double glazed | ||
PCS4 | Shading | Calculate shading |
Crate shading | ||
PCS5 | Wind tower | WT1 2: Open wind-tower |
WT2: Split wind-tower | ||
WT3: Split wind-tower: 3 m shorter | ||
WT4: Split wind-tower: 3 m taller | ||
WT5: Split wind-tower: reduced aperture | ||
WT6: Split wind-tower: closed on the east and west |
Scenarios | Current | 2050 | 2080 |
---|---|---|---|
Air temperature (°C) | 30.22 | 33.12 | 35.16 |
Total cooling plant sensible load (kW) | 89.45 | 120.67 | 144.13 |
WWR Ratio | 5% | 10% | 15%% | 20% |
---|---|---|---|---|
Living room | 0.81 m2 | 1.62 m2 | 2.42 m2 | 3.20 m2 |
Master bedroom | 1.05 m2 | 2.10 m2 | 3.15 m2 | 4.20 m2 |
Single Glazed | Double Glazed | Double Glazed | |
---|---|---|---|
Thickness | 4 mm | 24 mm | 24 mm |
Glass construction (From out to in) | Aluminium Cladding (4 mm) Unventilated Air Cavity (100 mm) Gypsum Blocks (60 × 60 × 10 cm) | Glass (4 mm) Air (16 mm) Glass (4 mm) | Glass (4 mm) Argon (16 mm) Glass (4 mm) |
U-Value | 2.7 W/m2K | 2.7 W/m2K | 1.3 W/m2K |
Base-Case Typical (BCT) | Insulated Concrete (INC) | Insulated Clay-Brick (ICB) | Low U-Value (TM) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Thickness | 230 mm | 370 mm | 320 mm | 530 mm |
Const. | Cement Plaster (15 mm) Concrete (200 mm) Cement Plaster (15 mm) | Cement Plaster (15 mm) Polyurethane board (90 mm) Concrete (250 mm) Cement Plaster (15 mm) | Cement Plaster (15 mm) Clay Brick (100 mm) Polyurethane board (90 mm) Clay brick (100 mm) Cement Plaster (15 mm) | Cement Plaster (15 mm) Polyurethane board (200 mm) Concrete (300 mm) Cement Plaster (15 mm) |
U-Value | 2.736 W/m2K | 0.249 W/m2K | 0.244 W/m2K | 0.118 W/m2K |
Insulated Ceiling | Thermal Mass Ceiling | |
---|---|---|
Thickness | 472 mm | 472 mm |
Construction | Gravel bedding (60 mm) Cement plaster (12.7 mm) Polyurethane board (200 mm) Concrete (200 mm) Cement Plaster (12.7 mm) | Layers from outside to inside Gravel bedding (60 mm) Cement plaster (12.7 mm) Polyurethane board (80 mm) Concrete (320 mm) Cement Plaster (12.7 mm) |
U-Value | 0.110 W/m2K | 0.275 W/m2K |
WWR Ratio | Fabric Component | Glazing | Combination |
---|---|---|---|
20% | Base case typical (BCT) | Single glazed | 20-BCT-SG |
Double glazed | 20-BCT-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 20-BCT-AR | ||
15% | Single glazed | 15-BCT-SG | |
Double glazed | 15-BCT-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 15-BCT-AR | ||
10% | Single glazed | 10-BCT-SG | |
Double glazed | 10-BCT-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 10-BCT-AR | ||
5% | Single glazed | 5-BCT-SG | |
Double glazed | 5-BCT-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 5-BCT-AR | ||
20% | Insulated concrete (INC) | Single glazed | 20-INC-SG |
Double glazed | 20-INC-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 20-INC-AR | ||
15% | Single glazed | 15-INC-SG | |
Double glazed | 15-INC-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 15-BCT-AR | ||
10% | Single glazed | 10-INC-SG | |
Double glazed | 10-INC-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 10-INC-AR | ||
5% | Single glazed | 5-INC-SG | |
Double glazed | 5-INC-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 5-INC-AR | ||
20% | Insulated clay brick (ICB) | Single glazed | 20-ICB-SG |
Double glazed | 20-ICB-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 20-ICB-AR | ||
15% | Single glazed | 15-ICB-SG | |
Double glazed | 15-ICB-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 15-ICB-AR | ||
10% | Single glazed | 10-ICB-SG | |
Double glazed | 10-ICB-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 10-ICB-AR | ||
5% | Single glazed | 5-ICB-SG | |
Double glazed | 5-ICB-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 5-ICB-AR | ||
20% | Low U-value const. (TM) | Single glazed | 20-TM-SG |
Double glazed | 20-TM-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 20-TM-AR | ||
15% | Single glazed | 15-TM-SG | |
Double glazed | 15-TM-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 15-TM-AR | ||
10% | Single glazed | 10-TM-SG | |
Double glazed | 10-TM-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 10-TM-AR | ||
5% | Single glazed | 5-TM-SG | |
Double glazed | 5-TM-DG | ||
Doubled glazed Ar. | 5-TM-AR |
Parameter | 5% | 10% | 15% | 20% |
---|---|---|---|---|
BCT SG | 88.62 | 89.58 | 90.58 | 91.49 |
BCT DG | 85.09 | 85.35 | 85.63 | 85.89 |
BCT AR | 85.04 | 85.30 | 85.58 | 85.83 |
INC SG | 68.87 | 69.50 | 70.17 | 70.81 |
INC DG | 66.18 | 66.56 | 66.95 | 67.32 |
INC AR | 66.13 | 66.50 | 66.88 | 67.25 |
TM SG | 67.89 | 68.54 | 69.22 | 69.86 |
TM DG | 65.18 | 65.56 | 65.96 | 66.34 |
TM AR | 65.13 | 65.50 | 65.90 | 66.27 |
ICB SG | 68.92 | 69.56 | 70.23 | 70.87 |
ICB DG | 66.24 | 66.61 | 67.00 | 67.37 |
ICB AR | 66.18 | 66.55 | 66.94 | 67.30 |
File | Minimum °C | Maximum °C | Mean °C | Mean Load | Solar Gain |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BCT SG | 9.76 °C | 47.57 °C | 30.20 °C | 1.295 kW | 0.439 kW |
BCT DG | 9.91 °C | 47.01 °C | 20.92 °C | 1.185 kW | 0.202 kW |
BCT AR | 9.94 °C | 47.02 °C | 29.94 °C | 1.185 kW | 0.201 kW |
WWR Ratio | 5% | 10% | 15% | 20% | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BCT SG Base-case | Average | 29.78 | 29.89 | 30.19 | 30.37 |
Maximum | 46.75 | 47.11 | 47.57 | 47.92 | |
Minimum | 9.67 | 9.79 | 9.76 | 9.73 | |
BCT SG Calculated | Average | 29.69 | 29.80 | 29.93 | 30.14 |
Maximum | 46.75 | 47.11 | 47.47 | 47.92 | |
Minimum | 9.57 | 9.66 | 9.61 | 9.55 | |
BCT SG Crate | Average | 29.64 | 29.62 | 29.79 | 29.90 |
Maximum | 46.76 | 47.1 | 47.53 | 47.86 | |
Minimum | 9.42 | 9.36 | 9.31 | 9.35 |
Wind Tower Specifications | |
---|---|
Tower height | 13.3 m |
Tower cross section | 2.3 × 1.5 m |
Wind catcher openings | 1.6 × 2.5 m broad end; 1.6 × 1.9 m short end |
Intra- floor supply openings | 0.7 m × 2.2 m broad end; 0.7 × 1.6 m short end |
Scenarios | Current | 2050 | 2080 |
---|---|---|---|
Air temperature (°C) | 30.22 | 33.12 | 35.16 |
Total cooling plant sensible load (kW) | 89.45 | 120.67 | 144.13 |
Scenarios | Current | 2050 | 2080 |
---|---|---|---|
Air temperature (°C) | 29.92 | 32.13 | 34.15 |
Total cooling plant sensible load (kW) | 28.23 | 39.53 | 47.82 |
Improvement over base case | 68.4% | 67.24% | 66.82% |
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© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Rodrigues, L.; Cherian, B.A.; Tokbolat, S. Reducing Cooling Energy Demand in Saudi Arabian Residential Buildings Using Passive Design Approaches. Buildings 2025, 15, 1895. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111895
Rodrigues L, Cherian BA, Tokbolat S. Reducing Cooling Energy Demand in Saudi Arabian Residential Buildings Using Passive Design Approaches. Buildings. 2025; 15(11):1895. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111895
Chicago/Turabian StyleRodrigues, Lucelia, Benjamin Abraham Cherian, and Serik Tokbolat. 2025. "Reducing Cooling Energy Demand in Saudi Arabian Residential Buildings Using Passive Design Approaches" Buildings 15, no. 11: 1895. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111895
APA StyleRodrigues, L., Cherian, B. A., & Tokbolat, S. (2025). Reducing Cooling Energy Demand in Saudi Arabian Residential Buildings Using Passive Design Approaches. Buildings, 15(11), 1895. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15111895