Experimental and Explicit FE Studies on Flexural Behavior of Superposed Slabs
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Overview of Physical Test
2.1. Concrete Mixture Proportion and Concrete Stress Strain Curve
- (1)
- testing curves. Four test curves were obtained for each type of material by uniaxial monotonic testing (refer to Figure 1), and the curves obtained after averaging are the ones labelled with the word “Testing” in Figure 2. The peak stress and the corresponding strain from each curve are tabulated in Table 2. Based on the (the superscript “i” is the wildcard denoting the mixing characteristic of the tested concrete), the compressive strength reduction index,
- (2)
- fitting curves. The testing curves were fitted using this stress-strain equation
2.2. Design of the Slab Specimens
- (1)
- (2)
- (3)
- The rebar configuration. Rebars were placed only during the fabrication of the prefabricated bottom layer, and their positions are detailed in Figure 3, and their level is the same as that of HRB400. The rebars can be categorized based on their functions into three types: longitudinal stressed rebars on the bottom of the precast layer (referred to as “l-rebar(s)” and indicated by blue lines in Figure 3), transverse unstressed rebars (indicated by green lines in Figure 3), and triangular rebar trusses each of which is composed of two bottom chord rebars, some web rebars, and a top chord rebar. The diameters and the mechanical properties of the abovementioned rebars are shown in Table 3.
- (4)
- The load-response law. The load-response law of all slabs is the same, with each slab being supported by two simple supports located on its bottom face, as depicted in Figure 4. Consequently, it is evident that the load-response law can be formulated using the same method applicable to simply supported members. Two symmetrically arranged and equally concentrated loads were applied on each studied slab, with their positions and other relevant details illustrated in Figure 4.
2.3. Testing Equipment, Measuring-Point Arrangement, and Loading Program
- (1)
- Testing equipment. Each studied slab was fixed on the supports within the reaction frame, as shown in Figure 5a. Two-point loading was applied with the help of a distribution steel beam, and the concentrated load was generated by a jack fixed to the top beam of the reaction frame.
- (2)
- Layout of the measuring points. During the test, data on the applied load and displacements in the thick direction were gathered. The load was measured using a force sensor positioned between the distribution beam and jack, as shown in Figure 5a. The collected displacements were measured using five dial gauges, with their positions shown in Figure 5b.
- (3)
- The loading program. The loading was performed using a load-displacement hybrid control loading scheme, which is divided into three sub-stages. ① During sub-stage I, the load was incrementally applied at about 10% of the cracking load until a specimen showed a visible crack. According to Figure 4, the bending cracking load can be calculated using the following formula: , where is the cracking moment. In this study, the determination of the cracking moment was based on the widely accepted assumption that concrete undergoes cracking when the tensile stress at the bottom-edge of the tension zone reaches the axial tensile strength , which can be determined using the plane section hypothesis regarding normal strain distribution. As proposed in the literature [37], the following formula,
3. Overview of Simulation Experiment
3.1. Creation of FE Model
3.2. Discrete, Contact, and Boundary Settings
- (1)
- Element type determination. Slabs and steel pads were discretized using an eight-node linear incongruous element, whose number is C3D8I in the Abaqus element library, while the rebars were discretized using a 3D two-node linear element, whose number is T3D2.
- (2)
- Element size determination. Discretization was carried out through the utilization of a pertinent Graphical User Interface (GUI) labeled as “Global Seeds”. The detailed settings for all types of entities (concrete-zones, rebars, and steel pads) were the same as follows: the parameter “approximate global size” was set to 25 mm, the parameter “curvature control” was set to 0.1, and the item named minimum size control used a relative size mode with a value of 0.1.
- (3)
- Determination of the bonding performance between rebars and concrete. It was assumed that there was no bond slip between the rebars and concrete. Therefore, the “Embedded constraint” option was adopted to embed rebars within the concrete entities.
- (4)
- Determination of the contacting mode between the steel pad and the concrete entities. It was assumed that each region near a contact interface between a steel pad and its corresponding slab entity could be considered a continuous medium; consequently, the “Tie” constraint mode was employed to merge the contact interfaces.
- (5)
- Boundary condition determination. To simulate the boundary conditions, only the rotational freedom around the transverse direction was assigned to the bottom boundary surface of a slab near the right support, and both the rotational freedom around the transverse direction and translational freedom along the longitudinal direction were assigned to the bottom boundary surface near the left support. Figure 5b shows the specific details.
3.3. Constitutive Relationships
- (1)
- The concrete constitutive relationship in the regions near the concentrated forces (Region I, shown in red in Figure 6). The elastic constitutive relationship employed for the steel pads mentioned in the “(4)” below was assigned to Region I to prevent calculation of failure due to excessive stresses surpassing the predefined value of the adopted concrete damage constitutive relationship for the main body of the simulation slab.
- (2)
- The concrete constitutive relationship in regions except Region I. This relationship was formulated using the concrete damage plasticity model (CDP) developed by J. Lubliner (1989) et al. and J. Lee (1998) et al., which has been collected into the Abaqus material library [38,39,40]. CDP is widely utilized in structural simulations. Recent applications include its use in simulating the shear performance of concrete T-beams [41] and in modeling the collapse behavior of industrial roof systems [42]. According to references [29,40], the established parameters for determining the material behavior are limited to the following: initial (undamaged) elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio ; ratio of initial equibiaxial yield stress to initial uniaxial compressive yield stress, and the ratio of the second stress invariant on the tensile meridian to that on the compressive meridian; eccentricity parameter , dilation angle factor , compressive stiffness recovery factor and tensile stiffness recovery factor ; viscosity parameter ; relation curve of uniaxial effective compressive cohesion stress to equivalent compressive plastic strain (- curve); and the relation curve of uniaxial effective tensile cohesion stress to equivalent tensile plastic strain (- curve). In this study, the values of these constitutive parameters were established as follows:
- ① The value of was determined by calculating the right derivative of the fitting curve at the point and the resulting value of for each type of concrete is listed in Table 2. Additionally, it is noted that the values of for all types of concrete were uniformly established at 0.2.
- ③ The value of was set to 0.005 for each type of concrete, as suggested in references [43,44]. Herein, it is worth noting that: firstly, in order to avoid potential convergence challenges arising from material softening, Abaqus offers the option of viscoplastic regularization of CDP constitutive equation when employing the implicit iterative algorithm to solve the FE equation set, and following this treatment, a viscosity coefficient is incorporated into the alternate stress-strain equation; secondly, the explicit algorithm was employed to approximate the solution of the FE equation set in this study, and unlike the implicit iterative algorithm, the explicit algorithm does not dictate convergence, leading us to believe that has no impact on simulation results. More comprehensive discussions on this topic are available in references [34,40].
- ④ When constructing - curve: the equivalent compressive plastic strain
- ⑤ Considering the fact that the influence caused by the tensile behavior of concrete on the simulation results, such as bearing capacity and cracking, is tiny, - curve, used in this study was determined based on the common values characterizing the properties of concrete under uniaxial monotonic loading, which are as follows: equivalent tensile plastic strain , where is a coefficient, and it was to take also to mitigate the impact of Situation I; uniaxial effective tensile cohesion stress . The functional relationship between and is in the following form suggested by the literature [36]
- (3)
- The constitutive relation of rebar. Before the slab fails, rebars within the slab typically exhibit either elastic or yield behavior, rather than strain-hardening behavior. Therefore, an ideal elastic-plastic model was selected to simulate the mechanical behaviors of rebars. The stress-strain curve of this model is represented as
- (4)
- The constitutive relation of the steel pad. According to the local influence principle, the impact of the selection of the constitutive model for the steel pads on the static behavior of a loaded slab is tiny, thus allowing for an assumption that the steel pads remain in a linear elastic state under static loading. The constitutive relation equation for this model is
3.4. Loading Strategy and Solving Algorithm Configuration
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Time History Curve of Energy
- (1)
- The loading program adopted for the BRBSII slab and the cracking failure characteristics of the BRBSII slab can be reflected through the geometric characteristics of the and curves. ① According to the curve, it is evident that increases monotonically (Phenomenon A1) as a whole, with a higher rate in the time domain compared to the time domains and (Phenomenon A2). Similarly, analysis of the curve indicates a significant increase in noise intensity (Phenomenon B1) during , followed by a notable decrease in both amplitude and intensity of the noise (Phenomenon B2) within (Excluding the short time interval after the yielding of all l-rebars at , as detailed in Section 4.2.2), and ultimately culminating in a marked surge in both amplitude and intensity of the noise during (Phenomenon B3). It is clear that Phenomenon A1 confirms the loading program described in Section 3.4. ② BRBSII slab obviously underwent three mechanical processes. The first process denoted as Procedure C1 can be described as follows: the tensile zone on the bottom face of the studied slab (B-face), particularly in the pure bending section (see Figure 9b), would continuously experience cracking (see Section 4.2 below) due to the pronounced tensile brittleness of concrete, and as soon as a tensile crack emerged, the internal potential energy originally stored near this emerged crack dissipated irreversibly, accompanied by a natural conversion of to . The second process, denoted as Process C2, can be described as follows: the emerging frequency of fresh tensile cracks between two adjacent cracks had decreased gradually (see Section 4.2.2 below) due to the deformation localization effect at the cracks. The other process denoted as Process C3 can be described as follows: when crushing occurred on the top face of the studied slab (T-face), there was irreversible dissipation of , and it is evident that the strain energy released from crushing exceeded that released from tension cracking by a significant margin. ③ The evolution characteristics of damages formulated by Procedures C1, C2 and C3 can explain Phenomena A2, B1, B2 and B3. Specifically, as follows: firstly, Phenomenon A2 can be attributed to the fact that a greater amount of internal potential energy is dissipated through the frequent germination of tension fractures during the early loading period or compression fractures during the late period compared to the intermediate period; secondly, the emergence of a great numerous tension cracks in the initial phase causes a substantial and concentrated release of kinetic energy, naturally leading to the occurrence of Phenomenon B1; thirdly, Phenomenon B2 occurring during the intermediate phase attributes to both the reduced initiation of fresh cracks, leading to limited and intermittent release of kinetic energy, and the accelerated extending-rate of existing cracks in the thick direction within a short time interval following the yielding of all l-rebars, resulting in large and closely-spaced release of kinetic energy; lastly, the initiation of some fresh crushing areas caused by compression in the later stage, accompanied by the significant and concentrated release of kinetic energy, gives rise to Phenomenon B3.
- (2)
- The value-range characteristic of indicates that the BRBSII slab remained in a quasi-static state for the majority of the loading time. Analysis of the curve reveals that
4.2. Cracking and Collapse of the Slab (Phenomena I) and Stress-Increasing Process of Longitudinal Rebars (Process II)
4.2.1. Phenomena I Given by Physical Test
- (1)
- The crack development illustrated by Figure 9a indicates the following three reasonable experimental facts. ① The initial crack originated on the B-face when , which closely approximates the estimated value obtained from the corresponding analysis method introduced in Section 2.3 and shown by expression (4). ② Fresh cracks progressively developed from the center of the slab towards both support ends, with pre-existing cracks extending in a thick direction as the applied load increased. ③ In the purely flexural section, the spacing between adjacent cracks exhibited statistically similarity, whereas in the flexural-shear section, there was an increase in crack spacing accompanied by a decrease in crack length.
- (2)
- The crack distribution on the B-face when the slab is crushed is illustrated by Figure 9b. It is evident that the distribution characteristic of the cracks is extremely similar to that of the cracks on the S-face as a whole. It is worth noting that on the B-face, a tiny number of longitudinal cracks had emerged, which had been driven out by the radial components of the forces caused by the extrusion between concrete and rebars.
- (3)
- The concrete crushing on T-face is depicted by Figure 9c.
- (4)
- In addition, there are two more points worth noting. Firstly, the absence of slippage between the precast layer and the cast-in-place layer throughout the entire loading process provides empirical support for treating the slab as a unified entity during simulation. Secondly, the yielding of all l-rebars could be deduced from the appearance of the second inflection point in the load-displacement curve (see Figure 12), corresponding to this special yielding load .
4.2.2. Phenomena I and Process II Given by FE Simulation
4.3. Load Displacement Curve and Characteristic Load Values
4.4. Yield Load and Ultimate Load
5. Conclusions
- (1)
- All PRB/PCRS physical slabs have flexural properties that meet the engineering requirements, and they are generally stronger than the traditional recycled concrete superposed slab, of which the BRBSⅡ plate has the best performance. The failure mode of each PRB/PCRS slab corresponds to that exhibited by a classic balanced-reinforced flexural member, and the superposed interface remains intact without any tearing. The evolution laws of side cracks, the distribution characteristics of bottom cracks, and the load -displacement curves provided by the experiments and simulations conducted on PRB/PCRS slabs and BN slabs are similar, respectively. Compared to the yield load or the utmost load of the BN slab, the yield load or the utmost load of PRB/PCRS slabs show a slight decrease within or . Notably, the slab with 1:1 mixture of PRB and PCRS demonstrated the highest yield and ultimate bearing capacities, showing minimal decreases 0.7% and 1.6%, compared to the conventional concrete slab.
- (2)
- The superior performance of each PRB/PCRS physical slab can be attributed to the excellent compressive performance of its corresponding PRB/PCRS concrete. The compressive stress -compressive strain test curves of AN concrete and four kinds of PRB/PCRS concrete are similar. Notably, compared to the peak stress of AN concrete, the peak stresses (, CRS) of the three types of PRB/PCRS concrete exhibits modest reductions ranging from 6.9% to 10.8%, with the exception being a 30.7% decrease in of ACRS concrete.
- (3)
- The proposed FE model for PRB/PCRS slabs provides both reasonable simulation solutions and ease of creation. The simulation results, consistent with the experiment ones or common sense, include the crack evolution history, - curve, and stress evolution history of stressed longitudinal rebars. Specifically, compared to or , or given by simulations demonstrate a tiny degree of deviation within or . The geometric features of the kinetic energy history curve obtained from simulation of a numerical slab provide validation for the crack propagation process in the corresponding physical slab.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
CDP: | Concrete damage plasticity constitutive model |
B/S/T-face: | Bottom/side/top face of the (physical or numerical) slab discussed or described |
FE: | Finite element |
l-rebar(s): | longitudinal stressed rebar(s) located at the bottom of the precast layer |
PRB: | Recycled brick powder prepared from waste bricks |
PCRS: | Calcined recycled slurry powder prepared from waste cement blocks |
N: | Material ID for the ordinary concrete without recycled powder |
RMP: | recycled micro-powder |
RB, CRS: | Material IDs for the specific types of concrete with partial replacement of cement by PRB and PCRS, respectively |
RBSI, RBSII: | Material IDs for the specific types of concrete in which PRB and PCRS are mixed in a 1:1 ratio to partially replace the cement or to completely replace of fly ash, respectively |
, : | ☐ concrete, and slab cast with ☐ concrete |
, , : | Quantity ☐ given through analytical analysis, experiment, and simulation, respectively |
, : | Quantity ☐ under the compression and tension, respectively |
, : | Quantity ☐ under the peak compressive and tensile stress, respectively |
: | Quantity ☐ given when load applied on a slab arrives at the cracking load, or quantity given when strain arrives at the cracking strain |
, : | Quantity ☐ given when the applied load arrives at the yield and ultimate load, respectively |
: | Quantity ◊ related to or |
, , : | Force applied to a slab, the moment, and the deflection of the middle point of a slab |
, : | Uniaxial stress and rebar stress in the longitudinal direction of the rebar |
, : | Uniaxial strain and initial yield strain of rebar |
, : | Initial elasticity modulus of concrete, and elasticity modulus of rebar |
, , : | Kinetic energy, internal potential energy, and the ratio of to |
: | Yield strength of rebar |
: | Damage variable or value |
: | time |
, : | Deviation in relation to a specific slab response, and compressive strength reduction index for ☐ concrete |
Note: The ☐ symbol in the nomenclature is a wildcard, which refers to the combination of the same symbols. |
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Material ID | Cement | Fly Ash | PRB | PCRS | Natural Sand | Coarse Aggregate | Water | Water Reducer |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AN | 336 | 59 | 0 | 0 | 807 | 948 | 170 | 4.54 |
ARB | 269 | 59 | 67 | 0 | 807 | 948 | 170 | 4.54 |
ACRS | 269 | 59 | 0 | 67 | 807 | 948 | 170 | 4.54 |
ARBSI | 269 | 59 | 33.5 | 33.5 | 807 | 948 | 170 | 4.54 |
ARBSII | 328 | 0 | 33.5 | 33.5 | 807 | 948 | 170 | 4.54 |
Material ID | /MPa | /MPa | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AN | 23.1 | 2150 | 2.587 | 1.239 | 29,181 | -- |
ARB | 21.4 | 1970 | 2.303 | 0.259 | 24,877 | 7.4% |
ACRS | 16.0 | 2160 | 2.809 | 0.320 | 21,879 | 30.7% |
ARBSI | 20.6 | 2013 | 2.142 | 3.139 | 23,060 | 10.8% |
ARBSII | 21.5 | 1892 | 2.154 | 0.906 | 25,766 | 6.9% |
/mm | /MPa | /GPa |
---|---|---|
6 | 480 | 206 |
8 | 514 | 200 |
10 | 540 | 200 |
Load Type | Sub-Stage I | Sub-Stage II | Sub-Stage III |
---|---|---|---|
Total load | 15 kN (≈) | 60 kN (0.7) | 10 mm |
Incremental load | 1.5 kN | 6 kN | 3 mm |
Slab ID | /kN | /kN | /% | /kN | /kN | /% | /kN | /kN | /% |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BN | 15.5 | 20.4 | 31.6 | 87.8 | 93.5 | 6.5 | 101.1 | 94.5 | 6.5 |
BRB | 13.5 | 18.4 | 36.3 | 85.5 | 91.7 | 7.3 | 92.7 | 95.4 | 2.9 |
BCRS | 10.7 | 18.3 | 71.0 | 85.1 | 91.7 | 7.8 | 90.5 | 92.3 | 2.0 |
BRBSI | 13.6 | 19.9 | 46.3 | 86.3 | 93.6 | 8.5 | 96.9 | 94.8 | 2.2 |
BRBSII | 14.5 | 19.1 | 31.7 | 87.2 | 95.0 | 8.9 | 99.5 | 95.3 | 4.2 |
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Ye, Q.; Zhang, P.; Ye, K.; Wang, W.; Li, Z.; Gao, Y.; Xie, T.; Liang, C. Experimental and Explicit FE Studies on Flexural Behavior of Superposed Slabs. Buildings 2025, 15, 1758. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15101758
Ye Q, Zhang P, Ye K, Wang W, Li Z, Gao Y, Xie T, Liang C. Experimental and Explicit FE Studies on Flexural Behavior of Superposed Slabs. Buildings. 2025; 15(10):1758. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15101758
Chicago/Turabian StyleYe, Qi, Ping Zhang, Ke Ye, Wei Wang, Zeshen Li, Yueqing Gao, Tianyu Xie, and Chaofeng Liang. 2025. "Experimental and Explicit FE Studies on Flexural Behavior of Superposed Slabs" Buildings 15, no. 10: 1758. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15101758
APA StyleYe, Q., Zhang, P., Ye, K., Wang, W., Li, Z., Gao, Y., Xie, T., & Liang, C. (2025). Experimental and Explicit FE Studies on Flexural Behavior of Superposed Slabs. Buildings, 15(10), 1758. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15101758