Reviving Architectural Ornaments in Makkah: Unveiling Their Symbolic, Cultural, and Spiritual Significance for Sustainable Heritage Preservation

Abstract

This study explores the sustainability of Islamic decorative arts by examining the symbolic, cultural, and spiritual dimensions of botanical decorations in Makkah’s architectural heritage. Grounded in Carl Jung’s theory of the collective unconscious and Lamya Al-Faruqi’s philosophy of Tawhid, the research uncovers the profound psychological and spiritual meanings embedded in these motifs. Employing a qualitative methodology, the study integrates symbolic analysis, cultural interpretation, and historical documentation, supported by digital design tools, to assess the relevance of these decorations in contemporary urban contexts. Findings reveal that botanical motifs, such as palm trees and pinecones, reflect universal archetypes of resilience and growth while symbolising divine unity through abstraction and harmony. The research highlights their integral role in architectural structures and their potential in cultural tourism and educational initiatives. However, challenges such as urbanisation necessitate urgent documentation and innovative preservation strategies. This study offers valuable insights into sustaining Makkah’s architectural identity by bridging psychological and philosophical perspectives. Its recommendations align with Saudi Vision 2030 and global sustainability goals, advocating for the revival and integration of these motifs into modern urban design to ensure the continued appreciation and recognition of Makkan architectural heritage.

1. Introduction

The city of Makkah, esteemed for its profound spiritual and historical significance, has undergone rapid urban transformations that have significantly altered its architectural identity and artistic heritage. These transformations during the 20th century have led to the disappearance of distinctive local Meccan decorations from building facades and wooden crafts—notably, those with unique designs dating back to the 13th century and the Ottoman period [1,2]. Among the most affected are heritage houses, which once represented a rich tapestry of Islamic cultural and artistic expression. Their intricately adorned windows, doors, and cabinets symbolised Makkah’s collective memory and identity. The erosion of these decorative elements raises pressing concerns about the loss of Islamic cultural and artistic identity, further exacerbated by ongoing modernisation efforts. In the face of such transformations, cultural sustainability becomes crucial. It emphasises the preservation of cultural heritage and the adaptation of this heritage to contemporary needs, ensuring that the symbols of Makkah’s unique identity are reintegrated into the modern urban fabric. This approach can guide the revitalisation of architectural decorations, merging the old with the new while maintaining a connection to the city’s rich history and cultural narrative. Cultural sustainability is vital for preserving heritage as it fosters a sense of pride and belonging within the community, thus contributing to a sustainable future that respects cultural diversity and supports environmental and social stability [3].

Preserving Makkah’s architectural heritage transcends mere aesthetics; it is intrinsically tied to the city’s cultural and spiritual legacy. Scholars such as Khalil and Kamel [4] underscore the urgent need for preservation initiatives led by municipal and rural affairs to address the visual distortions caused by rapid urbanisation. They advocate for safeguarding Makkah’s architectural and urban heritage to enrich its cultural and visual representation of Islamic identity. However, significant gaps persist in documenting, analysing, and understanding Makkah’s architectural decorations’ symbolic and spiritual dimensions.

This study aims to bridge these gaps by exploring the symbolic dimensions of Makkah’s urban identity, focusing on the decorative elements of its traditional architecture as reflections of the city’s cultural, religious, and psychological heritage. Drawing on Jung’s theory of the collective unconscious and Al-Faruqi’s theory of Tawhid, this research seeks to deepen the understanding of the city’s architectural symbols and their cultural significance.

Ultimately, this research emphasises the importance of integrating symbolic and cultural analyses with modern documentation techniques to revive and preserve Makkah’s architectural heritage. It positions architectural ornaments as bridges between the past and present, fostering a sense of continuity and belonging amid the city’s rapid transformations. By doing so, it seeks to safeguard these decorative elements and revive their cultural and artistic significance, ensuring their enduring legacy for future generations. Additionally, this research highlights the concept of cultural sustainability by emphasising the importance of preserving these unique Makkah ornaments as historical artefacts and living elements that continue to resonate with future generations. By utilising modern preservation techniques, the research ensures these ornaments remain integral to the city’s identity and cultural richness, fostering a deeper understanding of their symbolism within the Islamic world and beyond. This effort aims to balance tradition and innovation, ensuring that Makkah’s architectural heritage remains a source of pride and global recognition, serving as a valuable reference for the Islamic world and future generations.

2. Literature Review

2.1. The Historical Background of Islamic Art

Islamic art fundamentally reflects the proclamation “La ilaha illa Allah”, embodying the principle of Tawhid. Tawhid, which emphasises God’s oneness and absolute transcendence, is the cornerstone of Islamic art and philosophy. This principle underscores the distinction between the divine and the natural realm, ensuring that the divine is never conflated with the material or human domain. By extension, Islamic art aligns with this monotheistic worldview, refraining from depictions that could blur this boundary.

The Quran categorically prohibits iconography, emphasising the sanctity of the divine realm. Numerous ahadith support this view by discouraging the creation of animate life through art forms like painting or sculpture, as such acts are seen as infringing upon God’s exclusive creative authority [5]. This understanding has profoundly shaped the creative ethos of Muslim artists, guiding them to produce works that resonate with the principles of Tawhid while avoiding any elements deemed blasphemous.

Despite variations in culture, geography, and historical context, Muslim artists consistently channel the Tawhidic worldview in their creations. Their art eschews naturalistic depictions, favouring abstract and geometric designs, stylised motifs, and intricate calligraphy. This shared commitment to Tawhid grants Islamic art its distinctive character, setting it apart from other artistic traditions that may embrace iconography or figurative representation.

Al-Faruqi [6] asserts that the unity inherent in Islamic art transcends time and space, connecting works from different centuries and regions through a shared spiritual essence. This unity, while accommodating diverse styles, materials, and techniques, maintains the core Islamic spirit. It reflects a collective aesthetic expression informed by the Quran and Sunnah, uniting Muslims worldwide through a shared adherence to the principles of Tawhid.

The roots of Islamic art and its diverse artistic values trace back to the Mediterranean world of the seventh century when Islam emerged. Al-Faruqi [6] identifies three primary cultural influences that significantly shaped Islamic aesthetics: ancient Greece and its Hellenistic legacy, the Semitic Near East, and Byzantium.

Ancient Greek art conceived divinity as a pantheon of gods, demi-gods, and supernatural beings fashioned in human likeness. For the Greeks, humanity was central, and their gods epitomised various aspects of human nature. Consequently, their art reflected this anthropocentric worldview, utilising the human figure as a primary motif in sculptures, pottery, and architectural decoration. This naturalistic representation effectively deified the human form, positioning it as the vanguard of artistic expression during the Hellenistic and classical eras.

By contrast, the aesthetic tradition of the Near East, which Muslims inherited, fundamentally diverged from Greek and Roman perspectives. Despite centuries of Greek influence, Near Eastern civilisations resisted Hellenization and embraced a distinct perception of divinity, humanity, and beauty. Here, the divine was the ultimate measure of purpose and action, and humanity was seen as a servant fulfilling divine will. This worldview prioritised abstract and non-naturalistic forms such as decorative patterns and calligraphy, deliberately avoiding naturalistic representations.

Christian Byzantine art, representing a synthesis of Greek and Eastern traditions, formed the third significant influence. Byzantium’s aesthetic outlook, informed by Christian theology, differed from its predecessors. It embraced the incarnation of divinity in the human form, making human figures suitable symbols of the divine spirit. However, the Byzantine tradition integrated more abstract, ornamental features derived from Eastern influences, moving away from the naturalism of ancient Greek and Roman art.

Amid these varied influences, Islamic art emerged as a unique aesthetic system. It rejected Greek art’s anthropocentric naturalism and Byzantine traditions’ figurative symbolism. Instead, it introduced a monotheistic artistic vision centred on “La ilaha illa Allah”. This proclamation, embodying the essence of Tawhid, directly informed the content and form of Islamic art. Grounded in the Quran and Sunnah, this artistic worldview emphasised abstraction, unity, and transcendence, establishing Islamic art as a distinct cultural and spiritual expression.

2.2. The Influence of the Quran and Sunnah on Islamic Art

Lamya emphasises that the Quran and Sunnah have profoundly inspired and shaped Islamic aesthetics, which are composed of two main elements: content and form.

2.2.1. Content

The concept of content in Islamic art refers to its predominantly abstract nature. Islamic visual art deliberately avoids depicting humans, animals, or natural objects, emphasising geometric patterns, calligraphy, and stylised plant motifs. This abstraction reflects the Islamic worldview, which upholds God as absolute, infinite, and transcendent—beyond natural explanation or representation. By aligning their creations with the principles of Islam, Muslim artists render natural forms into denaturalised, compliant expressions of Tawhid [7].

This abstraction is achieved through three key techniques:

(a)

Stylisation

Stylisation involves transforming beings or objects from nature into denaturalised, abstract creations. For example, the palm tree, often featured in Islamic decorative art, is stylised to harmonise with the Islamic message of Tawhid, distancing it from its natural form.

(b)

Non-Individuation

Non-individuation refers to the depersonalisation of characters and objects in art. Islamic artists avoid individuality and personality, ensuring their works remain free from distinct characteristics that might evoke living beings. Whether human or animal, figures lack unique traits and instead serve as elements of colour, design, and movement. Even when human figures are included, they are so abstracted that they cease to resemble living, breathing persons, becoming purely ornamental.

(c)

Repetition

Repetition involves altering forms and figures from nature to create abstract, recurring patterns. This technique affirms God’s infinite and transcendent nature while rejecting the embodiment of divinity in the natural world. Through repetition, motifs in Islamic art evoke a sense of boundlessness, symbolising God’s infinite nature and aligning with Islamic principles.

2.2.2. Form

The form in Islamic art pertains to how these abstract and denaturalised decorative elements are organised. Two forms dominate Islamic aesthetics:

(a)

Non-developmental Structure

Non-developmental structures in Islamic art lack a focal point, avoiding progression toward a central theme or endpoint. This absence of hierarchy and subordination among elements symbolises infinity and transcendence. By combining repetitive elements harmoniously, Islamic art conveys the idea of endless continuity, reflecting the eternal nature of God.

(b)

Arabesque Structure

The arabesque represents a sophisticated arrangement of geometric patterns, calligraphy, and stylised plant and animal motifs. This structural entity, often referred to as Tawriq or foliation, accommodates development without contradicting the core principles of Islamic art. Arabesques highlight the intricate interplay between abstraction and complexity, underscoring the unity and transcendence central to the Tawhidic worldview.

Through these content and form elements, Islamic art expresses its aesthetic principles and serves as a visual manifestation of the Quranic and Prophetic teachings. The interplay of abstraction, repetition, and non-individuation underscores the Islamic commitment to avoiding idolatry while celebrating the infinite and transcendent nature of the divine.

2.3. Previous Related Studies

Globally, architectural studies highlight heritage preservation as a means of fostering cultural belonging and continuity. Pioneering works on Islamic architecture by Nasr [8] and Burckhardt [5] emphasise the spiritual essence of Islamic art and architecture, underscoring their ability to reflect monotheistic values and promote harmony. However, these contributions often adopt a broad perspective, focusing on universal principles rather than the specific contexts of cities like Makkah. Regionally, research on Hijazi architecture, such as the studies by Aina et al. [9], has examined the impact of modernisation on architectural identity but has seldom delved into the intricate decorative details that characterise cities like Makkah. Similarly, Sheikhi Nashalji et al. [10] identified hidden tessellations in the Grand Mosque of Varamin and modelled them using Revit 2024. Their method enables designers to create diverse geometric latticework, preserving Islamic heritage. Beyond ornamentation, these patterns enhance privacy and aesthetics in urban design, integrating tradition into modern architecture and smart cities.

The absence of comprehensive documentation compounds these challenges. Historical sources are often incomplete or lack specificity, while visual records frequently fail to capture the intricate details of architectural decorations. This gap hinders effective study and analysis. Theoretical frameworks such as Carl Jung’s concept of the “collective unconscious” and Lamya Al-Faruqi’s philosophy of Tawhid in Islamic art offer valuable tools for interpreting the symbolic meanings of architectural elements. Jung [11] views symbols as deeply embedded in cultural and religious values, shaping collective psychological and social identities. Complementarily, Al-Faruqi [6] interprets Islamic art as a reflection of monotheism and spiritual harmony, suggesting that architectural ornaments can embody these principles.

Despite theoretical insights, the symbolic dimensions of Makkah’s architectural heritage remain underexplored. Hammad [12] and Nabhan et al. [13] stress the need to align preservation with national strategies like Saudi Vision 2030, which seeks to safeguard and promote the Kingdom’s cultural legacy. While these initiatives provide a framework for preserving Makkah’s identity, they have yet to address the challenges of documenting and analysing its architectural symbolism. Similarly, while Islamic geometric patterns are celebrated for their aesthetics, their integration with sustainability principles in contemporary design remains largely unexplored [14].

Previous studies have demonstrated the utility of Jungian theories in exploring symbolism across various cultural and artistic domains. For example, Hunt [15] analysed how Jung’s collective unconscious is represented in art, highlighting the capacity of symbols to mirror universal psychological experiences. Similarly, Sun and Kim [16] extended this analysis to shamanic rituals, revealing how archetypal symbols influence consciousness and connect with the broader unconscious. However, applying Jungian theory to architecture, particularly in understanding Makkah’s symbolic elements, remains relatively rare. Likewise, Al-Faruqi’s philosophy of Tawhid provides an essential framework for understanding the spiritual and cultural dimensions of Islamic art. Studies by Abdullah et al. [17], and Badawi [18] illustrate how Islamic art reflects monotheistic values and spiritual unity. Nonetheless, while her theories have broadly informed analyses of Islamic art, their application to Makkah’s specific architectural context remains underdeveloped. This study seeks to integrate Jungian and Al-Faruqi frameworks to examine Makkah’s architectural ornaments, contributing to a richer understanding of their cultural, religious, and psychological significance.

3. Methodology

Methodologically, the research employs advanced graphic design tools such as Illustrator and AutoCAD to reconstruct and document the decorative details in traditional wooden craftsmanship in Meccan houses, particularly from the Ottoman period. This approach addresses the limitations of historical documentation and provides a foundation for further research into these ornaments’ symbolic and spiritual dimensions. By analysing these elements through Jungian and Al-Faruqi’s lenses, the study highlights their role in preserving Makkah’s cultural and architectural identity.

This study employs a qualitative research methodology to investigate the symbolic elements of Makkah’s architectural heritage. It focuses on understanding how the decorative features of traditional Meccan buildings reflect broader cultural, religious, and psychological themes. The approach is guided by the premise that architectural elements are not merely functional but are deeply imbued with symbolic meanings tied to identity, spirituality, and community memory.

As Denzin and Lincoln [19] note, qualitative research is instrumental in uncovering the construction of meaning within social realities, making it ideal for analysing the intricate symbolic decorations in Meccan architecture. Hence, the study employs documentary analysis and symbolic interpretation. These methods enable an in-depth exploration of how decorative elements such as botanical, inscriptions, and abstract motifs represent cultural, spiritual, and historical values. Given the disappearance of many original structures, the research relies heavily on photographic archives, historical records, and secondary sources to reconstruct and interpret these elements.

3.1. Case Study

Makkah’s architectural ornaments embody the city’s rich artistic heritage and deep spiritual significance. However, modernisation and urban development have led to the loss of many original structures. This study, therefore, relies on historical records, photographic archives, and previous research to reconstruct and analyse these decorative elements. Since the precise locations of many ornaments cannot be identified, a general map of Makkah provides geographical context for readers unfamiliar with the city. Figure 1 highlights key historical and architectural zones relevant to the study, situating the case study within the broader urban fabric and illustrating the distribution of traditional ornamentation. Within the circle lies the boundary of the Al-Shamiyah district, located north of the Holy Mosque in Makkah, which once housed Dar Al-Hana and the Hyderabad Ribaat, both renowned for the decorative motifs used in this paper. The absence of exact locations does not diminish the validity of this research, as the focus remains on preserving and analysing the artistic and symbolic significance of these decorations rather than their spatial positioning. By relying on archival documentation and digital reconstructions, this study ensures that these elements are accurately documented and analysed despite the disappearance of original structures.

Botanical and geometric motifs have been integral to Makkah’s traditional architecture for centuries. Palm tree motifs, floral patterns, and interwoven plant elements—often found in wooden carvings and decorative panels—symbolise growth, continuity, and divine unity. Geometric patterns such as arabesques, tessellations, and star-shaped designs reflect harmony and infinity, aligning with Islamic artistic principles. Calligraphic elements, including Quranic inscriptions and decorative Kufic script, further reinforce the sacred nature of Makkan architecture.

The historical evolution of Makkan ornamentation has been shaped by diverse influences, particularly from Ottoman and Hijazi architectural traditions. Trade and cultural exchange introduced various artistic techniques to Makkah, resulting in a distinctive fusion of styles that preserved Islamic artistic values while incorporating regional variations. However, modernisation and urban expansion have posed significant challenges to preserving these ornaments. The demolition and alteration of traditional buildings have contributed to the gradual loss of these culturally significant decorations. To mitigate these challenges, preservation efforts must prioritise documentation, digital reconstruction, and policy interventions. Advanced digital tools such as AutoCAD and Illustrator can aid in reconstructing lost decorative elements and ensuring their integration into contemporary architectural projects. Additionally, policymakers should encourage the incorporation of traditional Makkan motifs in new developments, promoting cultural continuity while adapting to modern urban needs.

3.2. Data Collection

The study employs an interpretive design to ensure contextual depth and accuracy in analysing Makkah’s architectural ornaments. Given the absence of many physical structures, the research relies on multiple complementary data sources to reconstruct and interpret traditional decorative elements. The process of symbol analysis follows a structured approach, ensuring methodological rigour in selection and interpretation:

• Historical Documents and Manuscripts:
  • Archival records, architectural treatises, and historical manuscripts provide primary references for identifying ornamental motifs.
  • Selection criteria focus on documents explicitly describing or illustrating Makkah’s decorative traditions, ensuring reliability in tracing symbolic meanings.
• Photographic Archives and Media:
  • A systematic review of historical photographs, videos, and films from reputable digital libraries and archives is conducted.
  • Ornamentation samples are selected based on their recurrence across multiple sources, indicating their historical and cultural significance.
  • Visual analysis techniques, including pattern recognition and motif comparison, are applied to categorise and interpret these decorative elements.
• Digital Reconstruction and Symbolic Analysis:
  • Software tools such as Adobe Illustrator 2024 v28.6 and AutoCAD 2023 v24.2 aid in reconstructing faded or lost details, enhancing the clarity of ornamentation for detailed study.
  • The reconstructed motifs are analysed through an interpretive framework, considering their stylistic elements, symbolic connotations, and cultural context.
  • The study cross-references reconstructed symbols with historical sources and existing literature on Islamic art and architecture to ensure accurate interpretation.

This structured approach ensures that the selection and analysis of ornamental symbols are systematic and rooted in historical authenticity while leveraging modern digital tools for preservation and deeper understanding.

3.3. Theoretical Framework

This study integrates two complementary theoretical perspectives to interpret the symbolic meanings embedded in Makkah’s architectural elements:

3.3.1. Carl Jung’s Theory of the Collective Unconscious

Jung’s concept of the collective unconscious, as outlined in Jung [11], provides a lens for understanding the universal and archetypal meanings of Makkah’s decorative symbols.

• Collective Heritage: Drawing on Carl Jung’s theory of the collective unconscious, the botanical motifs in Makkah’s architectural heritage can be seen as manifestations of universal archetypal symbols—deeply embedded in humanity’s collective memory—reflecting spiritual and cultural values that transcend time and place.
• Symbolism in Architecture: According to Jung, architectural symbols act as conduits for expressing unconscious ideas and cultural narratives. This study explores how Makkah’s ornaments embody deeper symbolic meanings, like arabesque designs and plant-based patterns.
• Religious Contexts: Jung’s focus on religion and mythology underscores the interplay between spiritual identity and collective symbols. The decorative architectural elements in Makkah, infused with Islamic motifs, reflect this dynamic, reinforcing its religious significance.

3.3.2. Lamya Al-Faruqi’s Theory of Tawhid in Islamic Art

The essence of Islamic civilisation—its diversity, cultural richness, and spiritual depth—is encapsulated in the profound proclamation “La ilaha illa Allah” (There is no god but Allah) [22]. Al-Faruqi [6] asserts that this declaration of monotheism, Tawhid, forms the philosophical foundation of Islamic art. Central to her theory is the recognition that the Tawhidic worldview, emphasising God’s oneness and transcendence, shapes not only spiritual and social dimensions but also the cultural and aesthetic expressions of Muslim societies.

Lamya highlights the comprehensive nature of this worldview, which permeates every aspect of life, including Islamic art. According to her, the Tawhidic perspective provides unity to Islamic art by aligning its content and form with principles derived from the Quran and Sunnah. This unity distinguishes Islamic art from other artistic traditions, which often rely on figurative and developmental forms of expression.

The Tawhidic worldview rejects naturalistic representation, focusing instead on abstract and symbolic elements that reflect the transcendence of God. Lamya emphasises that this approach manifests in both the content and form of Islamic art:

• Content: Islamic art avoids depicting humans, animals, or naturalistic forms, emphasising geometric patterns, calligraphy, and stylised plant motifs. These elements affirm the absoluteness of God and His separation from the material world.
• Form: The structure of Islamic art employs non-developmental designs and arabesques that symbolise infinity and transcendence, further reinforcing the Tawhidic principles.

Lamya underscores the unifying effect of this worldview on Islamic art, which transcends temporal, cultural, and geographic boundaries. By embodying the values of Tawhid, Islamic art serves as a cohesive expression of monotheism, fostering a shared spiritual and cultural identity among Muslims.

This Tawhidic philosophy positions Islamic art as an aesthetic endeavour reflecting divine unity and spiritual harmony. It bridges the spiritual and material realms, offering a unique perspective that distinguishes it from other artistic traditions. Through this lens, Lamya Al-Faruqi provides a framework to understand how Islamic art continues to resonate as a timeless expression of faith and culture.

3.4. Analytical Approach

The research adopts a two-pronged analytical framework to uncover the symbolic meanings embedded in Makkah’s architectural ornaments:

• Symbolic Interpretation: Using Jung’s framework, the study interprets the archetypes and symbolic representations in Makkah’s architectural elements. This involves identifying recurring patterns and themes that resonate with universal human experiences.
• Cultural Contextualisation: Al-Faruqi’s theory is employed to contextualise the symbols within Islamic art’s spiritual and cultural traditions, focusing on their alignment with the principles of Tawhid and their role in reflecting Islamic values.

3.5. Methodological Justifications

This study addresses the limitations of traditional documentation while preserving the cultural and symbolic heritage of Makkah’s architecture. By employing digital tools such as Adobe Illustrator and AutoCAD, the study ensures precise reconstructions of decorative elements, allowing for detailed analysis despite the absence of many original structures. This approach bridges the gaps in documentation by utilising historical archives, manuscripts, and photographic records to provide a comprehensive understanding of Makkah’s architectural identity. Furthermore, the study emphasises the importance of exploring the symbolic dimensions of these decorative elements to preserve their cultural significance. Through the integration of Jungian and Al-Faruqi’s theoretical frameworks, this research sheds light on the spiritual and cultural meanings embedded in Makkah’s ornaments, advocating for their recognition as vital cultural artefacts that contribute to a shared sense of identity and continuity in the face of modernisation and urban transformation.

By combining Jung’s psychological lens with Al-Faruqi’s Islamic aesthetic perspective, this research provides a nuanced and comprehensive understanding of Makkah’s architectural heritage. It offers a new way of interpreting these decorative elements’ symbolic and spiritual dimensions, contributing to the broader discourse on preserving cultural and architectural identity.

4. Results Analysis

4.1. Overview of Decorative Elements

The architectural decorations analysed in this study are examined in detail, focusing on their visual characteristics, materials, recurring motifs, and cultural and architectural significance. Ornamental designs found in wooden elements from Makkah’s architectural heritage during the first half of the 13th Hijri century (the first half of the 19th Gregorian century) are highlighted as prime examples of the era’s intricate craftsmanship and cultural depth. These findings are primarily derived from historical documents and photographic archives, which provide valuable visual and textual evidence of the original ornamentation. Additionally, digital reconstruction tools were employed to restore missing details and enhance the clarity of motifs for accurate analysis.

4.1.1. Visual Characteristics

The analysed ornaments are distinguished by their elaborate botanical compositions. Central to these designs are motifs inspired by natural elements, including palm trees and their fronds, pinecones, and fish scales, the latter incorporated for their visual resemblance to botanical patterns. These motifs were skillfully integrated into various shapes, such as circular and semi-circular designs, palm fan patterns, floral arrangements, and leaves reminiscent of grape clusters.

The Makkah-based artists demonstrated remarkable ingenuity in crafting these ornaments. They employed individual botanical elements to create intricate and diverse compositions, achieving innovative and harmonious designs. Notably, a prominent researcher, Al-Harithi [23], referred to this distinctive style as “Makkah Ornamentation”, highlighting its unique role in the city’s architectural legacy. This study reconstructed these compositions’ intricate layering and detailing by analysing historical photographs and manuscripts, ensuring comprehensive documentation of their artistic significance.

For analytical clarity, the decorative compositions were categorised according to their components, as outlined below:

(a)

Composition Types

• Palm Tree Compositions: featuring stylised elements derived from palm trees and fronds;
• Pinecone or Fish Scale Motifs: incorporating repeating patterns inspired by pinecones or scales;
• Mixed Compositions: combining palm tree motifs, pinecones, and other botanical or abstract elements.

Each category comprises multiple sub-patterns, totalling 33 distinct decorative models. These designs were systematically renewed, clarified, and compiled for detailed analysis.

(b)

Materials and Techniques

The decorations were predominantly crafted using wood carving and engraving techniques, demonstrating high artisanal expertise. The wooden surfaces served as the primary medium, with the motifs applied to key architectural elements, including:

• Doors: serving as prominent focal points in traditional Meccan architecture;
• Windows and Rawasheen: traditional wooden latticework that balances aesthetics with functionality;
• Built-in Wall Cabinets: enriching the interiors with artistic expression while maintaining utility.

These techniques ensured the designs were seamlessly integrated into the architecture’s functional and decorative aspects. The reliance on wood also speaks to the availability and adaptability of materials during the period under study. Photographic archives played a crucial role in identifying these applications, while digital reconstructions helped refine their spatial placement and ornamental arrangements.

(c)

Types of Ornamentation: Botanical Motifs

Botanical motifs formed the cornerstone of Makkah’s architectural decorations during this period. The artists drew inspiration from the natural environment, transforming organic forms into stylised, denaturalised representations aligned with Islamic artistic principles. This approach reflects the broader Islamic aesthetic of abstraction and the avoidance of naturalistic depictions. The study relied on historical documents and archival images to classify and compare these motifs, ensuring the interpretations remained grounded in documented evidence.

While visually appealing, the botanical motifs also carried symbolic meanings, reinforcing themes of growth, spirituality, and connection to nature. Their integration into architectural elements enhanced the spiritual atmosphere of Makkah’s urban spaces, creating a sense of harmony and continuity with the city’s cultural and religious identity. Through digital enhancement techniques, some of the faded or damaged motifs were reconstructed, allowing for a more precise analysis of their stylistic and symbolic variations.

4.1.2. The Importance of Decorative Elements in Makkah’s Architectural Heritage

The decorative motifs of Makkah are an essential part of the city’s architectural and cultural identity, offering profound insights into its artistic, historical, and religious legacy. Their documentation in this study was based on a combination of textual sources, visual records, and digital reconstructions, ensuring a multi-dimensional understanding of their historical context.

These motifs were not merely ornamental but were intricately tied to the city’s architectural fabric, adorning elements such as doors, windows, and rawasheen. Their presence elevated these structures beyond mere functionality, transforming them into artistic expressions that harmonised form and function in line with the principles of Islamic architecture. Their unique identity, distinguished by designs exclusive to the city, sets Makkah’s decorative elements apart. Botanical patterns, such as the ubiquitous palm tree motif, are a hallmark of these decorations, reflecting Makkah’s artistic ingenuity and cultural distinctiveness. This uniqueness reinforces the city’s central role in shaping and defining Islamic decorative traditions.

The motifs also reflect the rich legacy of the Islamic era, embodying the monotheistic values and aesthetics that characterise Islamic art. Their intricate designs harmonise beauty with spirituality, visualising the city’s religious and civilisational identity. Moreover, these motifs are significant markers of historical periods, particularly the Ottoman era, during which their widespread application showcased the artistic innovation and technical mastery of the time. As such, they are valuable indicators of Makkah’s evolving architectural traditions and the broader development of decorative art within Islamic heritage.

Inspired by nature, the motifs express a harmonious relationship between art and the natural environment, a principle central to Islamic aesthetics. Beyond their visual appeal, they served as a medium of cultural expression, narrating the traditions, values, and identity of the people who crafted and inhabited these spaces. Despite their historical and cultural importance, many of these motifs have been lost, with only fragmented visual references remaining. This loss highlights the urgent need for documentation and revival to safeguard Makkah’s artistic legacy. By integrating AutoCAD and Illustrator, the study digitally reconstructed several missing decorative elements, allowing for their potential reapplication in contemporary architectural designs.

4.2. Analysing Makkah’s Decorative Motifs in Light of Carl Jung’s Theory of the Collective Unconscious

The decorative motifs found in Makkah’s architectural heritage transcend mere ornamentation, reflecting deeper cultural, spiritual, and psychological dimensions. Applying Carl Jung’s theory of the collective unconscious provides an insightful lens through which these motifs can be analysed. While these motifs embody universal archetypes, their significance within the local context of Makkah warrants deeper examination, considering religious, historical, and social influences. Archival photographs and historical descriptions were essential in tracing the evolution of these motifs, confirming their role as enduring symbols within Makkah’s cultural identity.

Palm trees, pinecones, and interwoven botanical patterns resonate with Jung’s concept of archetypes—universal patterns and images rooted in humanity’s shared collective psyche. Using digital tools, the reconstruction of these motifs facilitated their categorisation and analysis, ensuring that their symbolic interpretations were based on accurately restored designs. However, the extent to which these motifs reinforce cultural identity and collective memory in Makkah necessitates further inquiry.

4.2.1. Palm Trees: Symbols of Fertility and Spiritual Elevation

Palm trees are symbolic, representing fertility, abundance, and spiritual steadfastness across cultures. Within the framework of Carl Jung’s theory of the collective unconscious, trees are archetypal symbols that bridge the earthly and divine realms, emphasising humanity’s intrinsic connection to nature and the sacred [24]. Palm trees, in particular, are imbued with meanings that resonate deeply within Islamic tradition and Makkah’s decorative heritage. Figure 2 highlights the diverse forms of palm tree motifs, showcasing their artistic and symbolic richness [25].

(a)

Archetypal Symbolism of Palm Trees

Jung posits that archetypes like trees reflect universal patterns in humanity’s shared psyche. Palm trees epitomise this archetype through their dual role as a source of physical sustenance and a spiritual metaphor. However, beyond their universal significance, the symbolic function of palm trees in Makkah’s artistic and religious landscape requires closer scrutiny. How did local artisans adapt these motifs to reflect Makkah’s historical and spiritual context?

• Islamic Perspectives (Palm Trees as Symbols of Divine Care): Hawting [26] highlights the association of palm trees with divine care in Islamic culture, as referenced in the Quran and Hadith. In Surah Maryam (19:23-25), the palm tree plays a pivotal role in Mary’s story, providing sustenance and comfort in a critical moment, reinforcing its symbolism as a sign of divine provision. Additionally, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) likened the believer to a palm tree, emphasising resilience, stability, and continuous benefit. These religious interpretations enhance the significance of the motif, yet their architectural placement and artistic stylisation in Makkah require further discussion.
• Universal Context: Hageneder [27] notes that trees, including palm trees, act as a link between earth and sky, representing humanity’s perpetual quest for spiritual transcendence. The palm tree embodies this aspiration with its upright form and upward-reaching fronds. Remarkably, its symbolism transcends cultural boundaries. In Christianity, for instance, the palm symbolises eternal life and victory, while in ancient Mesopotamian cultures, it signifies fertility and abundance. This cross-cultural resonance reinforces the universal nature of the palm tree archetype, yet comparative analyses between Makkah and other Islamic architectural traditions would further illuminate its local adaptation.
• Architectural Significance (The Palm Tree as a Living Symbol): In Makkah’s sacred architecture, the palm tree carries meanings beyond its physical form to represent higher spiritual ideals. The palm-inspired geometric designs in Islamic architecture showcase a remarkable balance between simplicity and precision, reflecting the quest for harmony between earth and sky. However, the extent to which these designs communicate spiritual meanings to contemporary viewers remains an open question. How has modern interpretation influenced the perception of these motifs?

(b)

The Role of Design in Amplifying Archetypal Symbolism

The depiction of palm trees in Islamic art further elevates their deep symbolism. The upward-reaching lines and symmetrical repetitions in architectural ornamentation emphasise the balance between earth and sky, stability and transcendence. This balance between aesthetic and spiritual dimensions reveals the essence of Islamic art, which seeks to integrate meaning and form. Thus, the palm tree in Makkah’s architecture becomes more than a decorative element; it is a living symbol reflecting the collective consciousness of the community and its artists, embodying their vision of connecting with profound spiritual values.

(c)

Representation in Makkah’s Decorative Motifs

The frequent depiction of palm trees in Makkah’s architectural designs reinforces their symbolic importance. Artists skillfully incorporated stylised palm trees into wooden carvings and engravings, emphasising their sacred and cultural value. These motifs, often found on doors, windows, rawasheen, and wall panels, demonstrate the artisans’ ability to blend aesthetic beauty with spiritual meaning.

The recurring use of palm tree motifs in Makkah’s architectural heritage reflects a collective acknowledgement of spiritual resilience and divine abundance. Through their artistic representation, these motifs serve as a visual and symbolic bridge between the temporal and the eternal, harmonising with Makkah’s identity as a spiritual and cultural epicentre.

(d)

Preservation of Archetypal Legacy

These motifs are essential for safeguarding Makkah’s architectural heritage and maintaining its archetypal significance. By documenting and reviving these designs, this study ensures that their symbolic meanings continue to inspire and connect future generations to Makkah’s spiritual and cultural essence.

4.2.2. Pinecones: Symbols of Eternity and Stability

Pinecones are deeply symbolic across cultures, embodying notions of immortality, stability, and spiritual endurance. Within Carl Jung’s framework of the collective unconscious, symbols such as pinecones reflect archetypal truths that resonate universally, transcending individual cultural contexts. However, the prominence of pinecone motifs in Makkah, a region without a natural abundance of pine trees, raises questions about transmitting symbolic meanings through artistic influence and intercultural exchanges. Figure 3 illustrates the varied representations of pinecone motifs, showcasing their integration into the city’s architectural elements and emphasising their symbolic significance.

(a)

Archetypal and Symbolic Significance of Pinecones

Jung’s concept of archetypes emphasises that symbols like pinecones are rooted in humanity’s shared psyche, carrying meanings that span spiritual, cultural, and psychological dimensions.

• Eternity and Timelessness: Brown [28] explores how pinecones symbolise eternity in diverse cultural traditions. Their enduring and unchanging form makes them a natural representation of permanence and immortality, resonating with the archetypal desire for stability and continuity. In Makkah, these motifs may have been reinterpreted through an Islamic lens, aligning them with divine constancy and spiritual endurance concepts.
• Spiritual Resilience: Cooper [29] connects pinecones with spiritual resilience, suggesting they represent enduring faith and eternal values. These qualities align seamlessly with the Islamic emphasis on steadfastness and the pursuit of eternal reward. Further exploration of their integration into Makkah’s architectural compositions could provide insights into their evolving symbolic associations.

(b)

Representation in Makkah’s Decorative Art

Pinecone motifs in Makkah’s architectural decorations exemplify their symbolic power. Artisans skillfully incorporated these motifs into wooden carvings and engravings on doors, windows, and other architectural features. These designs often blend pinecones with other elements, such as geometric patterns and botanical forms, creating aesthetically captivating and symbolically profound compositions. In Makkah’s context, the pinecone motif extends beyond its ornamental appeal to convey permanence and spiritual resilience themes. It reflects the enduring nature of the Islamic faith and the stability of Makkah’s cultural and spiritual identity, harmonising with the city’s sacred significance.

(c)

Preserving the Archetypal Message

Documenting and reviving pinecone motifs within Makkah’s architectural heritage is vital to preserving their symbolic message. These motifs enrich the artistic and cultural legacy of the city and serve as visual reminders of eternal spiritual truths, offering inspiration to future generations. In conclusion, the appearance of pinecone motifs in Meccan architecture reflects not only an artistic inheritance from broader Islamic traditions, but also highlights the distinctive role of the Meccan artist, who reinterpreted this motif in an original and inventive manner. The resulting decorative expressions stand unparalleled across the Islamic world, marking Mecca as a unique centre of artistic innovation within the Islamic architectural heritage.

4.2.3. Interwoven Plants and Palm Fronds: Symbols of Life Cycles and Balance

Interwoven plants and palm fronds are recurring motifs in Makkah’s decorative heritage, symbolising growth, renewal, and interconnected themes. Within Carl Jung’s framework of the collective unconscious, plants and trees are universal archetypes representing humanity’s cyclical connection to the divine. Their presence in Makkah’s architectural designs suggests an emphasis on continuity and regeneration, yet their precise symbolic application within Islamic spirituality could be further interrogated. Figure 4 showcases the intricate designs of interwoven plants and palm fronds in Makkah’s architecture, emphasising their symbolic connection to life cycles and spiritual harmony.

(a)

Archetypal and Symbolic Significance

The interwoven plant motifs reflect humanity’s innate understanding of life cycles and their perpetual renewal, a concept rooted deeply in the collective unconscious:

• Cyclical Renewal and Growth: Jung [30], in Man and His Symbols, explores the archetypal significance of natural motifs, such as interwoven plants, which remind the cyclical relationship between humanity and the divine. They represent the unending growth, decay, and renewal processes, underscoring life’s eternal balance.
• Sacred Continuity: Barfield [31] emphasises how plant imagery in art symbolises life’s continuity and its sacred interconnectedness with the natural world. This connection resonates with Islamic perspectives on the natural order as a reflection of divine grace.

(b)

Integration in Makkah’s Decorative Art

Including interwoven plant patterns alongside palm fronds in Makkah’s architectural motifs demonstrates the skill and intentionality of local artisans. These motifs are intricately carved into wooden elements such as doors, windows, and rawasheen (traditional wooden latticework), showcasing a profound artistic understanding of balance and interconnectedness.

(c)

Combined Symbolism with Fish Scale Motifs

When juxtaposed with fish scale patterns, the interwoven plant motifs embody a deeper symbolic resonance:

• Spiritual Nourishment and Renewal: Fish scales, symbolising sustenance and divine provision, complement the themes of regeneration and growth depicted by the plants.
• Harmonious Balance: Together, these elements create a narrative of cyclical balance, illustrating how divine grace sustains life’s natural and spiritual rhythms. This interplay reflects the integration of Islamic principles with the collective archetypal imagery found in Makkah’s art.

(d)

Cultural and Spiritual Legacy

Preserving and documenting these motifs is essential to safeguarding Makkah’s unique artistic identity. They serve as decorative elements and profound reminders of humanity’s interconnectedness with the divine and the natural world. Reviving these motifs within contemporary design can reinforce their cultural and spiritual significance for future generations.

4.2.4. The Combined Symbolism: Harmony Between the Divine and the Earthly

The integration of fish scales with interwoven plants or palm fronds in Makkah’s decorative motifs reflects a profound archetypal message, emphasising balance and interconnectedness between the spiritual and earthly realms. However, the process through which artisans selectively incorporated and combined these elements remains underexplored. Were these motifs consciously arranged to convey specific spiritual messages, or did they follow inherited aesthetic conventions?

• Faith and Divine Provision: Fish scales symbolise divine sustenance and grace, resonating with Jung’s concept of archetypes as universal connectors to spiritual truths [32,33].
• Renewal and Life Cycles: Interwoven plants represent growth and regeneration, symbolising humanity’s bond with nature’s rhythms and divine creation [30,31].
• Balance and Unity: Together, these motifs illustrate the harmony between spiritual grace and natural cycles, embodying the interconnectedness of all existence—a central theme in both Jungian theory and Islamic art.

These motifs convey Makkah’s artistic legacy of unity and renewal, offering timeless insights into the spiritual and natural balance that defines the city’s heritage.

4.2.5. Symbolic Heritage: Unity Between the Material and Spiritual

The botanical patterns in Makkah’s architecture exemplify repetition and symmetry, embodying universal values of balance, harmony, and unity. Rooted in Jung’s theory of archetypes, these motifs transcend mere decoration, serving as symbols deeply embedded in humanity’s collective unconscious (Jung, 1968 [34]). Nevertheless, the extent to which these motifs continue to carry their historical meanings in modern architectural practice remains to be examined. Has contemporary urban development affected their symbolic reception?

Elements such as palm trees, pinecones, arabesques, and other plant-based designs convey profound spiritual and cultural meanings. As referenced in the Quran, palm trees symbolise stability and divine blessing, while pinecones evoke immortality and renewal.

These motifs reinforce a dynamic connection between the material and spiritual realms and reflect Makkah’s religious and cultural essence. Their symbolic resonance emphasises humanity’s shared heritage and the intrinsic relationship between nature, spirituality, and architectural expression. By integrating archetypal significance with Islamic traditions, these patterns articulate Makkah’s spiritual identity while reinforcing the timeless values of immortality, renewal, and connection with the divine. Further critical engagement with their evolving interpretations would enrich the discourse on Makkah’s architectural heritage.

4.3. Analysis of Decorative Patterns According to Lamya Al-Faruqi’s Perspective and Principles of Islamic Art

Makkah’s decorative elements embody the principles of Tawhid (unity and monotheism) central to Islamic art, as outlined by Al-Faruqi [6]. These motifs reflect divine unity, spiritual themes, and cultural belonging through abstract and geometric forms. They align with Islamic aesthetics by emphasising infinity, transcendence, and harmony, linking the material and spiritual realms while fostering a deep sense of identity and connection within the Islamic cosmological framework.

The study cross-referenced historical descriptions of these motifs with photographic evidence to validate these interpretations, ensuring their aesthetic principles were consistently applied throughout Makkah’s architectural history. Furthermore, digital reconstruction techniques enabled a detailed visual analysis, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of how these motifs were designed and integrated into architectural elements.

4.3.1. Palm Trees: Symbols of Fertility and Spiritual Elevation

Figure 2 illustrates five palm tree designs found in Meccan architecture. These designs are analysed in terms of content and form, showcasing their alignment with the principles of Islamic art as articulated by Al-Faruqi [6].

• Content Analysis

The analysis examines patterns A to E, focusing on their symbolic and artistic attributes. Pattern A presents a symmetrical and abstract representation of palm fronds, deviating from their natural form to emphasise stylisation and transcendence. This abstraction reinforces the sanctity of creation, aligning with monotheistic principles [6]. By removing individual characteristics, the design highlights unity, reflecting Nasr’s [8] concept of non-individuation. The repetition of elements enhances the sense of infinity and harmony, a key aspect of Islamic art as interpreted by Burckhardt [5].

Pattern B follows a similar approach by simplifying palm fronds into decorative vegetal forms, further exemplifying stylisation and abstraction [6]. The indistinct elements blend seamlessly into the overall design, reinforcing unity and the absence of individuation (Nasr, 1987, [8]). Through repetition, the pattern creates a sense of continuity and infinite harmony, which are fundamental to Islamic aesthetics [5]. Similarly, Pattern C features abstracted palm fronds that convey a sense of harmonious movement and transcendence, distancing themselves from naturalistic details [6]. The lack of personal traits within the design underscores integration and unity [8], while repeated elements contribute to a dynamic sense of movement and spiritual infinity, symbolising transcendence [5]. The delicate curvature of the design enhances its fluidity, reflecting the organic essence of Islamic ornamentation.

Pattern D is characterised by symmetry and simplification, reinforcing abstraction principles in line with Burckhardt’s [5] interpretation. The absence of distinctive traits highlights unity and integration, echoing the philosophy of non-individuation [6]. The repetitive structure of the pattern strengthens its continuity and sense of harmony. Finally, Pattern E is the most intricate of the designs, featuring abstracted palm fronds that exemplify the essence of abstraction [6]. Its unified elements lack individuality, symbolising monotheism [8]. The extensive use of repetition intensifies the sense of infinity and divine order, resonating with the fundamental principles of Islamic art [5]. The interwoven elements in this pattern underscore the principle of interconnectedness, symbolising divine unity and order.

• Form Analysis

The form analysis of patterns A to E highlights the principles of continuity, harmony, and abstraction, aligning with the core traditions of Islamic art. Pattern A exhibits a non-developmental composition devoid of a central focal point, which fosters a sense of continuous harmony and infinity [6]. The interconnected elements reflect the arabesque style, showcasing a seamless integration of vegetal motifs that reinforce the concept of visual harmony [35].

Similarly, Pattern B avoids a singular focal point, promoting unity and continuity throughout the design. The seamless intertwining of vegetal motifs exemplifies the arabesque structure, reinforcing the Islamic artistic principle of interconnectedness. Pattern C follows this approach by maintaining balance and harmony without emphasising a central focus. The structured interconnection of elements creates a unified arabesque composition, where the division of units ensures a cohesive and harmonious visual effect [36].

Pattern D further exemplifies the timeless quality of Islamic design through its non-developmental nature [35]. The overlapping elements contribute to a well-balanced arabesque pattern, enhancing the sense of unity and visual cohesion. This structured repetition emphasises the concept of eternity, an essential component of Islamic aesthetics. Lastly, Pattern E presents a dense, intricate composition that emphasises continuity without progressing toward a focal point. This arrangement illustrates transcendence and absolute harmony, while the arabesque intertwining of forms achieves a delicate balance, symbolising divine order and the infinite nature of Islamic artistic expression [5].

4.3.2. Pinecones: Symbols of Eternity and Stability

Figure 3 illustrates three stylised designs of pinecones found in Meccan architecture. The following analysis explores these motifs through the lenses of stylisation, non-individuation, and repetition, emphasising their alignment with Islamic art principles.

• Stylisation

Each pattern transforms the pinecone into an abstract geometric motif, emphasising fluidity and balance. Pattern A features extended spiral lines accentuating movement and dynamism, creating a sense of continuous flow [37]. In Pattern B, the central elements are framed by curved branches, producing a visually harmonious composition reflecting natural forms’ organic integration [38]. Meanwhile, Pattern C adopts a geometric arrangement highlighting the pine scales in a structured and hierarchical composition, reinforcing order and symmetry within the design [39].

• Non-Individuation

The decorative patterns merge individual features into unified designs, creating a sense of harmony and cohesion. In Pattern A, leaves and flowers seamlessly integrate with spirals, eliminating distinct characteristics and emphasising fluid interconnectedness [37]. Pattern B follows a similar approach, where repeated branches form a cohesive and balanced structure, reinforcing the principle of non-individuation [40]. This abstraction transforms individual elements into an interconnected whole, mirroring the cosmic order in Islamic art. Likewise, Pattern C incorporates triangular elements that blend seamlessly into the overall design without distinguishing individual traits, reflecting the unifying nature of Islamic ornamentation [8].

• Repetition

The repeated use of vegetal motifs across the patterns reinforces the concepts of infinity and continuity, which are central to Islamic artistic traditions. Pattern A features spirals and leaves that repeat symmetrically around the central form, creating a dynamic yet balanced composition [37]. Similarly, Pattern B is dominated by symmetry and repetition, particularly in arranging branches and scales, which contribute to a rhythmic and structured visual effect [39]. The cyclical arrangement of motifs reinforces the theme of eternal recurrence, a symbolic aspect deeply rooted in Islamic tradition. Pattern C integrates geometric and vegetal decorations within a triangular framework, where rhythmic repetition enhances the overall coherence of the design [40]. Repetition in decorative motifs also reflects the auditory patterns in Islamic practices, such as the tones and recurrence of the call to prayer (Adhan), reinforcing a sense of contemplation and spiritual connection, and enhancing the presence of Tawhid in the visual and auditory aspects of daily life.

• General Form Analysis

The pinecone designs exhibit a non-developmental structure, emphasising arabesque and symmetry, reinforcing Islamic principles of balance, harmony, and abstraction (Figure 2). The absence of focal points and hierarchical arrangements ensures an even distribution of elements, creating a sense of fluidity and continuity throughout the patterns. These design principles reflect aesthetic considerations and serve as metaphysical expressions of divine harmony and interconnectedness in Islamic art.

The non-developmental structure of these designs is evident in the way elements are arranged without a dominant centre. In Pattern A, curved lines generate a dynamic circular motion, contributing to a sense of perpetual movement [5]. Pattern B features a symmetrical central design, where curved branches extend outward, reinforcing the idea of continuity and interconnectedness [38]. Meanwhile, Pattern C symmetrically arranges geometric and vegetal motifs around a triangular core, integrating natural and geometric elements into a unified composition [8].

Arabesque and symmetry further define these patterns, with vegetal motifs seamlessly merging into repetitive and harmonious designs. In Pattern A, spiral lines emphasise the flowing nature of arabesque, illustrating the organic dynamism of Islamic ornamentation [37]. Pattern B maintains central symmetry, with soft branches contributing to a visually balanced composition [40]. On the other hand, Pattern C employs geometric and hierarchical symmetry, centring its design around a triangular shape, enhancing structural cohesion and balance [8].

4.3.3. Interwoven Plants and Palm Fronds: Symbols of Life Cycles and Balance

Figure 4 illustrates five designs integrating palm tree elements, pinecones, and other motifs. These combinations reflect the Islamic aesthetic of unity and interconnectedness, emphasising life cycles and spiritual harmony. The following sections analyse these designs through content analysis and form analysis.

• Content Analysis

The analysis of Patterns A to E focuses on three key principles in Islamic ornamentation: stylisation, non-individuation, and repetition. Each pattern exemplifies these principles through its abstracted forms, unified composition, and repetitive motifs, reinforcing Islamic art’s spiritual and aesthetic values.

In Pattern A, stylisation transforms vegetative elements into abstract decorative forms, symbolising Tawhid (monotheism). Shafiq [37] describes this transformation as elevating natural elements into spiritual symbols. The principle of non-individuation is evident as elements blend seamlessly into the design, lacking distinct characteristics. Burckhardt [5] explains that Islamic art prioritises collective harmony over individual distinction. Repetition plays a crucial role, with symmetrical motifs reinforcing infinity and unity. As Ettinghausen and Grabar [39] state, repetition in Islamic art manifests spirituality and transcendence.

Pattern B similarly abstracts leaves and fronds into ornamental forms, aligning with the Islamic principle of detachment from natural representation. Shafiq [37] notes that stylisation in Islamic art abstracts nature to conform to its aesthetic ideals. The lack of unique traits among vegetative motifs contributes to a unified composition, reflecting Burckhardt’s [5] observation that Islamic ornamentation eliminates individuality to emphasise collective unity. The repetition of these motifs further enhances harmony and infinity, reinforcing the spiritual essence of Islamic design [39].

In Pattern C, natural details are completely removed, transforming vegetative forms into symbolic decorative units. According to Shafiq [37], abstraction in Islamic art detaches natural elements from their literal meanings, allowing them to take on a spiritual dimension. The principle of non-individuation ensures that all elements appear identical, with no emphasis on individual distinction. As Burckhardt [5] asserts, this approach underscores the importance of unity in Islamic aesthetics. Repetition remains a defining feature, conveying balance and eternity while reflecting spiritual transcendence [39].

Pattern D follows a similar stylistic approach, reshaping leaves and flowers into abstract forms embodying Islamic artistic philosophy. Shafiq [37] describes this stylisation as a means of reformulating nature into symbols of monotheism. Burckhardt noted that the depersonalisation of vegetative elements reinforces unity [5]. He states that the absence of individual characteristics fosters a sense of collective harmony. The repetition of motifs symbolises stability and the infinite, a fundamental aspect of Islamic ornamentation [39].

Finally, Pattern E represents the most stylised approach, where vegetative motifs are completely abstracted, breaking away from natural forms to reflect Islamic values. Shafiq [37] characterises this process as transforming nature into abstract expressions of the divine. The indistinct nature of elements highlights the principle of non-individuation, ensuring that the design focuses on collective unity rather than individual features. Burckhardt [5] notes that Islamic art intentionally removes individuality to emphasise collective harmony. The repetition of patterns reinforces transcendence and continuity, aligning with the spiritual foundations of Islamic artistic traditions [39].

• Form Analysis

The form analysis of Patterns A to E highlights two key characteristics of Islamic ornamentation: the non-developmental structure and the arabesque principle. These features contribute to the sense of balance, continuity, and unity that define Islamic artistic traditions.

Pattern A exhibits a non-developmental structure, where circular and evenly distributed elements create a sense of constancy and infinity. According to Ettinghausen and Grabar [39], the non-developmental structure in Islamic art ensures equality among all parts, avoiding a hierarchy or directional emphasis. The arabesque quality of this pattern is evident in the interwoven vegetative elements, which embody balance and harmony. Shafiq [37] emphasises that arabesque merges natural and abstract elements into a unified composition, reinforcing the interconnected nature of the design.

Similarly, Pattern B maintains a static composition without a focal point, emphasising infinite balance. Shafiq [37] explains that a non-developmental form in Islamic ornamentation reflects the concept of infinity, where no single element dominates the overall design. The arabesque quality of this pattern is reflected in the seamless intertwining of vegetative motifs, which create a fluid and harmonious structure, as described by Burckhardt [5].

Pattern C also follows a non-developmental structure, with balanced elements evenly distributed to convey permanence and unity. Shafiq [37] notes that such forms signify balance and eternity, avoiding a centralised or hierarchical arrangement. The interconnection of design units further reinforces its arabesque nature, forming a cohesive and continuous composition. Burckhardt [5] explains that arabesque integrates abstract and natural forms into a unified whole, demonstrating the symbolic harmony within Islamic ornamentation.

Pattern D embodies the same structural principles with a timeless composition that lacks progression and reflects equilibrium. Shafiq [37] describes this as a fundamental characteristic of Islamic ornamentation, where the absence of directional movement preserves a sense of visual stability. The arabesque nature of this pattern is enhanced by the overlapping vegetative motifs, which create an elaborate and unified design. Burckhardt [5] notes that arabesque symbolises infinite harmony, with each element seamlessly connected to the whole.

Finally, Pattern E avoids hierarchy in its composition, focusing on continuity and balance. Shafiq [37] states that the absence of focal points in Islamic art embodies unity, ensuring that every part of the design contributes equally to the overall aesthetic. The intricate connections between motifs reinforce its arabesque quality, producing a seamless and infinite structure that exemplifies Islamic ornamentation’s spiritual and artistic principles [5].

5. Discussion

5.1. Comparison Between Carl Jung’s Theory of Collective Consciousness and Lamya Al-Faruqi’s Theory of Tawhid

Table 1. Key Differences between Carl John’s theory of collective consciousness and the theory of Lamya Al-Faruqi (monotheism).

Aspect	Lamya Al-Faruqi	Carl Jung
Philosophical Basis	Islamic philosophy and (Tawhid) Tawhid (oneness of God))	Psychology and psychoanalysis
Artistic Expression	Islamic art seeks to embody spiritual values rooted in Tawhid, emphasising divine unity over human-centred expression.	Symbols representing the collective unconscious
Ultimate Goal	Islamic art is not merely a medium for aesthetic expression but a philosophical and spiritual reflection that reinforces the idea that God is the sole Creator and that everything in the universe is interconnected through His unity.	Understanding psychological and social meanings
Symbolic Tools	Stylization ،Non-Individuation Repetition ،Arabesque	Archetypes (universal patterns)

highlights the main differences between Carl Jung’s theory of collective unconscious and Lamya Al-Faruqi’s philosophy of Tawhid, emphasising their distinct philosophical foundations, artistic expressions, and symbolic tools. The comparative analysis in this study draws on historical documents and artistic archives to establish a clear distinction between Jung’s psychological archetypes and Al-Faruqi’s theological symbolism.

While Jung’s approach is rooted in psychology and psychoanalysis, focusing on archetypes as universal symbols connecting humanity through shared unconscious experiences, Al-Faruqi’s framework is grounded in Islamic philosophy. Her interpretation centres on Tawhid—the oneness and transcendence of God—as the guiding principle of Islamic art, where abstraction and repetition symbolise divine unity and infinite harmony. Photographic evidence of Makkah’s decorative elements, combined with historical textual analysis, demonstrates how both theories can be applied to interpret the spiritual significance of motifs.

Both theories provide profound insights into the symbolic and spiritual dimensions of art. Jung’s theory highlights how archetypes reflected in art serve as conduits for connecting individuals with shared cultural narratives and universal meanings. These symbols, such as palm trees or geometric designs, represent growth, eternity, and resilience, bridging psychological and cultural dimensions. Conversely, Al-Faruqi’s perspective interprets the same elements through the lens of Tawhid, transforming natural forms into abstract symbols of divine unity. For instance, while Jung might view a palm tree as an archetypal symbol of resilience and connection to the divine, Al-Faruqi sees it as a stylised abstraction that avoids naturalistic depiction, emphasising the transcendence of creation.

Aesthetically, Jung’s framework treats art as a medium to explore collective unconscious meanings, emphasising psychological and cultural connections. In contrast, Al-Faruqi’s philosophy prioritises spiritual reflection, where art embodies the oneness of creation and divine harmony. Her approach deliberately avoids personal or human-centred narratives, focusing instead on abstraction, repetition, and arabesque patterns to convey infinite continuity and interconnectedness.

Despite some thematic overlaps, the theories diverge significantly in their ultimate goals and symbolic interpretations. Jung aims to uncover psychological and social meanings through archetypes, while Al-Faruqi seeks to express spiritual values rooted in Islamic philosophy. Al-Faruqi’s tools—such as stylisation, non-individuation, repetition, and arabesque—embody the interconnectedness of all creation under God’s unity. Jung’s reliance on universal patterns and archetypes reflects his psychological lens, making the two frameworks distinct yet complementary in exploring art’s symbolic and aesthetic dimensions.

5.2. Study Findings

The findings of this study reveal several key insights into the cultural, spiritual, and functional significance of botanical decorations in Meccan architecture. The botanical motifs adorned traditional Meccan houses, such as palm trees and nature-inspired patterns, demonstrate their ability to express values of growth, renewal, and spiritual connection, reflecting Makkah’s cultural and spiritual identity. Archival photographs and documented historical sources confirmed the extensive presence of botanical motifs in traditional Makkan homes.

According to Carl Jung’s theory of the collective unconscious, these decorations hold profound meanings rooted in universal archetypes. This study employed digital reconstructions to restore missing patterns and explore their symbolic depth. For example, palm trees represent resilience and spiritual growth, while interwoven botanical motifs symbolise the continuity and balance of life.

From Lamya Al-Faruqi’s perspective on the philosophy of Tawhid, botanical decorations embody the principles of unity and transcendence. This philosophical lens reveals how such patterns go beyond mere ornamentation, becoming profound expressions of divine unity. Through abstraction, repetition, and harmony, these motifs reflect infinity and spiritual balance—core aspects of Islamic art. Digital tools offered a methodological approach to reconstruct missing details, ensuring precise documentation of these decorative elements.

The study integrates psychological and spiritual perspectives, highlighting botanical decorations as psychological symbols and spiritual reflections. Jung examines their symbolic and psychological dimensions, while Al-Faruqi explores their religious and philosophical significance. These decorations were also integral to architectural elements such as doors, windows, and rawasheen (traditional latticework), achieving a balance between functionality and aesthetics in traditional Islamic architecture. The study advocates for incorporating these motifs into modern designs using locally sourced, sustainable materials and resource-efficient construction techniques, emphasising sustainability. However, rapid urbanisation poses a challenge to their preservation. The study highlights the importance of documenting these decorations through digital design tools and promotes their revival in innovative yet authentic ways to strengthen cultural identity to address this challenge.

Additionally, the study highlights the educational value of these motifs, recommending their inclusion in arts and architecture curricula to foster cultural and spiritual awareness among future generations. By shaping Makkah’s visual identity, these decorations contribute to cultural belonging and reinforce the city’s status as a global symbol of Islamic art.

5.3. Recommendations

Several strategies must be implemented to preserve and revive the traditional botanical decorations of Makkah. This study recommends expanding digital archiving efforts using AutoCAD and Illustrator to reconstruct lost motifs and establish a comprehensive digital archive with 3D images and detailed descriptions of each decoration. These efforts will safeguard Makkah’s artistic and cultural heritage for future generations.

Integrating plant-inspired and geometric Makkan designs into contemporary architecture is crucial in preserving cultural aesthetics. Historical documents support incorporating traditional motifs into new developments, ensuring continuity in architectural identity. These motifs can enhance public elements such as doors, windows, and facades, strengthening the city’s visual character. Encouraging real estate developers to adopt these designs would further elevate their aesthetic and cultural significance. Additionally, museums and exhibitions showcasing Makkan ornaments and detailed explanations of their historical and symbolic meanings could promote cultural tourism and serve as educational hubs celebrating Makkah’s artistic heritage.

Education plays a critical role in preserving this legacy. The study recommends introducing the topic of Makkan ornaments into art and architecture curricula to foster cultural and spiritual awareness. Workshops for students and enthusiasts can teach practical techniques for integrating these motifs into modern designs, bridging the gap between tradition and contemporary aesthetics.

Preservation efforts should include establishing a dedicated fund to support restoration and conservation projects, protecting these decorations from the risks of urbanisation and neglect. Photographic records and historical sources underscore the urgency of such interventions to safeguard Makkah’s unique artistic heritage.

Sustainability is another essential consideration. Using locally sourced and sustainable materials for recreating ornaments and adopting modern construction techniques that reduce resource consumption and enhance energy efficiency align with cultural preservation and environmental goals.

Furthermore, expanding the use of Makkan-inspired designs in creative industries, such as furniture, clothing, and jewellery, can bring these traditional elements into daily life while fostering global appreciation. These ornaments enhance cultural identity and align with Saudi Vision 2030 by promoting cultural and religious awareness within the community. By addressing contemporary challenges and embracing innovative approaches, these recommendations ensure that Makkan botanical decorations remain a vital part of the city’s heritage and identity.

6. Conclusions

This study has explored botanical decorations’ symbolic, cultural, and spiritual significance in Makkah’s architectural heritage, emphasising their role in reflecting the city’s cultural identity and spiritual values. By comparing Carl Jung’s theory of collective unconscious and Lamya Al-Faruqi’s philosophy of Tawhid, the analysis highlighted the diverse interpretations of these decorations, bridging psychological and spiritual dimensions. Jung’s focus on universal archetypes and Al-Faruqi’s emphasis on divine unity revealed complementary perspectives that enrich our understanding of these motifs.

The findings highlight the significance of botanical decorations as integral to Meccan architecture—not merely as aesthetic embellishments but as symbols of growth, resilience, and divine unity. These motifs function as psychological symbols and spiritual reflections, deeply embedded in Makkah’s cultural and religious heritage. However, rapid urbanisation threatens their preservation, underscoring the need for documentation, revival, and integration into modern contexts. This study presents a comprehensive approach to understanding and safeguarding these elements by combining documentary analysis, archival photography, and digital reconstruction.

The recommendations in this study provide a comprehensive framework for achieving cultural sustainability in Makkah by preserving and reviving its traditional botanical decorations. Future research should expand these efforts by incorporating 3D scanning and additional digital tools to enhance the documentation and revival of Makkah’s architectural ornaments. Additionally, incorporating these motifs into modern architecture and creative industries fosters cultural awareness and appreciation, aligning with Saudi Vision 2030.

In conclusion, cultural sustainability in Makkah requires innovative approaches that balance tradition and modernity. Preserving its botanical decorations safeguards artistic heritage and maintains the city’s unique cultural and spiritual identity. By integrating these symbols into contemporary design within a sustainable framework, they can continue to inspire future generations and strengthen Makkah’s historical and cultural legacy.