The Impact of Coping Strategies and Individual Resilience on Anxiety and Depression among Construction Supervisors
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Literature Review
1.1.1. Coping
1.1.2. Resilience
1.1.3. Coping with Stress in the Construction Industry
1.1.4. Hypothesis of the Study
2. Methodology
2.1. Research Instruments
2.1.1. Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9)
2.1.2. Generalised Anxiety Disorder-2 (GAD-2)
2.1.3. Brief Resilience Scale (BRS)
2.1.4. Coping Strategies Instrument
2.1.5. Semi-Structured Interviews
2.1.6. Face and Content Validity
2.2. Sample Size
2.3. Data Collection
2.4. Statistical Analysis
2.4.1. Quantitative Data Analysis
- No depression or depression—a supervisor is categorised as “depression” if they had PHQ-9 scores ≥ 5.
- No anxiety or anxiety—a supervisor is categorised as having “anxiety” if he or she has GAD-2 scores ≥ 3.
- No suicidal ideation or suicidal ideation—a supervisor is categorised as having “suicidal ideation” if they ticked option two or above on item 9 of the PHQ-9, which indicates “a suicidal ideation experience”.
- Supervisors were categorised as “high resilience” if they had BRS score ≥ 4.31, “normal resilience”, and “low resilience” if their BRS score was 3.00–4.30 and 1.00–2.99, respectively.
- For coping strategies, “strongly disagree” was coded as 0 (i.e., No); “very little”, “moderately”, and “very great” were coded as 1 (i.e., Yes).
- For depression or anxiety symptoms, “not at all” was coded as 0; “several days”, “more than half the days”, and “nearly every day” were coded as 1.
- For resilience, BRS score 1.00–2.99 was coded as 0 (i.e., low); BRS 3.00–4.30 = 1 (i.e., normal); BRS ≥ 4.31 = 2 (i.e., high). The BRS scores were re-coded for moderation analysis, and to determine the reciprocal relationship between resilience and coping strategies, BRS 1.00–2.99 was coded as 0 (i.e., not resilient/low), and BRS scores ≥ 4.31 and 3.00–4.30” were re-coded as 1 (i.e., resilient/high).
2.4.2. Thematic Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Profile of the Respondents
3.2. Mental Ill-Health Symptoms and Resilience Level among the Respondents
3.3. Association between Individual Resilience, Mental-Ill Health Symptoms, Suicidal Ideation, and Demographic Variables
3.4. Resilience and Mental Health
3.5. Coping Strategies Employed and Their Effects on Mental Health
3.6. Association between Individual Resilience, Coping Strategies and Mental Health
3.7. Discussion
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
BRS QUESTIONNAIRE | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Respond to Each Statement Below by Ticking One Answer Per Row | Strongly Disagree | Disagree | Neutral | Agree | Strongly Agree |
I tend to bounce back quickly after a hard time of stress | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
I have a hard time making it through stressful events | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 |
It does not take me long to recover from a stressful event | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
It is hard for me to snap back when something bad happens | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 |
I come through difficult times with little trouble | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
It tend to take a long time to get over setbacks in my life | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 |
Correlations | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Suicidal Ideation | Depression | Anxiety | Resilience | |||
Spearman’s rho | Suicidal Ideation | Correlation Coefficient | 1.000 | 0.301 ** | 0.326 ** | −0.101 |
Sig. (2-tailed) | . | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.187 | ||
N | 174 | 174 | 174 | 174 | ||
Depression | Correlation Coefficient | 0.301 ** | 1.000 | 0.239** | −0.172 * | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.000 | . | 0.001 | 0.023 | ||
N | 174 | 174 | 174 | 174 | ||
Anxiety | Correlation Coefficient | 0.326 ** | 0.239 ** | 1.000 | −0.160 * | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.000 | 0.001 | . | 0.035 | ||
N | 174 | 174 | 174 | 174 | ||
Resilience | Correlation Coefficient | −0.101 | −0.172 * | −0.160 * | 1.000 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.187 | 0.023 | 0.035 | . | ||
N | 174 | 174 | 174 | 174 |
Run MATRIX procedure: **************** PROCESS Procedure for SPSS Version 3.5.2 **************** Written by Andrew F. Hayes, Ph.D. www.afhayes.com (accessed on 20 August 2022) Documentation available in Hayes (2018). www.guilford.com/p/hayes3 (accessed on 20 August 2022) ************************************************************************** Model : 4 Y : Alogit X : nCP1 M : RES Sample Size: 174 ************************************************************************** OUTCOME VARIABLE: RES Model Summary R R-sq MSE F df1 df2 p 0.1582 0.0250 0.5572 4.4127 1.0000 172.0000 0.0371 Model coeff se t p LLCI ULCI constant 1.5000 0.2155 6.9608 0.0000 1.0747 1.9253 nCP1 0.4691 0.2233 2.1006 0.0371 0.0283 0.9100 ************************************************************************** OUTCOME VARIABLE: Alogit Coding of binary Y for logistic regression analysis: Alogit Analysis 0.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 Model Summary -2LL ModelLL df p McFadden CoxSnell Nagelkrk 126.8091 16.4223 2.0000 0.0003 0.1147 0.0901 0.1606 Model coeff se Z p LLCI ULCI constant 1.1162 0.7776 1.4355 0.1512 −0.4078 2.6402 nCP1 −2.2378 0.6461 −3.4639 0.0005 −3.5041 −0.9716 RES −0.5161 0.3326 −1.5516 0.1208 −1.1680 0.1358 |
Run MATRIX procedure: **************** PROCESS Procedure for SPSS Version 3.5.2 **************** Written by Andrew F. Hayes, Ph.D. www.afhayes.com (accessed on 20 August 2022) Documentation available in Hayes (2018). www.guilford.com/p/hayes3 (accessed on 20 August 2022) ************************************************************************** Model : 1 Y : Alogit X : nCP1 W : DicotRES Sample Size: 174 ************************************************************************** OUTCOME VARIABLE: Alogit Coding of binary Y for logistic regression analysis: Alogit Analysis 0.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 Model Summary -2LL ModelLL df p McFadden CoxSnell Nagelkrk 122.5892 20.6423 3.0000 0.0001 0.1441 0.1119 0.1994 Model coeff se Z p LLCI ULCI constant −0.6931 0.8660 −0.8004 0.4235 −2.3905 1.0042 nCP1 −0.7985 0.9413 −0.8483 0.3963 −2.6435 1.0465 DicotRES 2.3026 1.3964 1.6489 0.0992 −0.4344 5.0395 Int_1 −3.2581 1.4855 −2.1932 0.0283 −6.1697 −0.3465 These results are expressed in a log-odds metric. Product terms key: Int_1 : nCP1 x DicotRES Likelihood ratio test(s) of highest order unconditional interactions(s): Chi-sq df p X*W 5.7393 1.0000 0.0166 ---------- Focal predict: nCP1 (X) Mod var: DicotRES (W) Conditional effects of the focal predictor at values of the moderator(s): DicotRES Effect se Z p LLCI ULCI 0.0000 −0.7985 0.9413 −0.8483 0.3963 −2.6435 1.0465 1.0000 −4.0566 1.1492 −3.5298 0.0004 −6.3091 −1.8042 Data for visualizing the conditional effect of the focal predictor: Paste text below into a SPSS syntax window and execute to produce plot. ------ END MATRIX ----- |
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Variable | Categories | Frequency (%) | Mean (SD) |
---|---|---|---|
Demographics Characteristics | |||
Sex | Male | 158 (90.8) | |
Female | 16 (9.2) | ||
Type of firm | Micro | 37 (21.3) | |
Small | 59 (33.9) | ||
Medium | 46 (26.4) | ||
Large | 32 (18.4) | ||
Years of Experience | 1–5 years | 46 (26.4) | |
6–10 years | 66 (37.9) | ||
11–15 years | 41 (23.6) | ||
16–20 years | 10 (5.7) | ||
21–25 years | 4 (2.3) | ||
over 25 years | 7 (4.0) | ||
Position | Project Manager | 62 (35.6) | |
Site Engineer/Supervisor | 73 (41.9) | ||
Asst. Site Engineer/Supervisor | 39 (22.4) | ||
Education | HND | 43 (24.7) | |
PGD | 19 (10.9) | ||
BSc./B.Tech. | 67 (38.5) | ||
MSc./M. Tech. | 45 (25.9) | ||
Professional Affiliation | |||
NIOB | 93 (53.4) | ||
NICE | 74 (42.5) | ||
NIQS | 5 (2.9) | ||
NIA | 2 (1.1) | ||
Mental ill-health symptoms | |||
Depression (0, 17) | 5.33 (3.80) | ||
None-Minimal (0–4) | 79 (45.4) | ||
Mild (5–9) | 65 (37.4) | ||
Moderate (10–14) | 27 (15.5) | ||
Moderately severe (15–19) | 3 (1.7) | ||
Suicide ideation | 16 (9.2) | ||
Anxiety (0, 6) | 1.20 (1.39) | ||
None-minimal (0–2) | 149 (85.6) | ||
Mild-moderate (≥3) | 25 (14.4) | ||
Resilience | Low resilience (≥2.99) | 55 (31.6) | |
Normal resilience (3.00–4.30) | 75 (43.1) | ||
High resilience (4.31–5.00) | 44 (25.3) |
Depression | No Depression | χ2 or F | p | COR | Anxiety | No Anxiety | χ2 or F | p | COR | Resilience | No Resilience | χ2 or F | p | COR | |
Personnel (n = 174) | 95 (55.1) | 79 (44.9) | 25 (14.8) | 149 (85.2) | 119 (68.4) | 55 (31.6) | |||||||||
Gender | 2.08 | 0.19 | 1.62 | 0.25 | 1.35 | 0.28 | |||||||||
Male (n = 158) | 89 (56.3) | 69 (43.7) | 21 (13.3) | 137 (86.7) | 106 (67.1) | 52 (32.9) | |||||||||
Female (n = 16) | 6 (37.5) | 10 (62.5) | 4 (25.0) | 12 (75.0) | 13 (81.3) | 3 (18.8) | |||||||||
Years of experience | 2.54 F | 0.79 | 7.03 F | 0.16 | 5.81 F | 0.31 | |||||||||
1–5 year (n = 46) | 24 (52.2) | 22 (47.8) | 4 (8.7) | 42 (91.3) | 35 (76.1) | 11 (23.9) | |||||||||
6–10 year (n = 66) | 38 (57.6) | 28 (41.8) | 11 (16.7) | 55 (83.3) | 42 (63.6) | 24 (36.4) | |||||||||
11–15 year (n = 41) | 24 (58.5) | 17 (41.5) | 7 (17.1) | 34 (82.9) | 27 (65.9) | 14 (34.1) | |||||||||
16–20 year (n =10) | 5 (50.0) | 5 (50.0) | - | 10 (100) | 5 (50.0) | 5 (50.0) | |||||||||
21–25 year (n = 4) | 1 (25.0) | 3 (75.0) | - | 4 (100.0) | 4 (100) | - | |||||||||
>25 year (n = 7) | 3 (42.9) | 4 (57.1) | 3 (42.9) | 4 (57.1) | 6 (85.7) | 1 (14.3) | |||||||||
Suicidal Ideation | 10.90 | 0.00 | 0.30 a | 18.18 | 0.00 | 0.33 a | 1.20 | 0.40 | −0.10 | ||||||
No (n = 158) | 80 (50.6) | 78 (49.4) | 17 (10.8) | 141 (89.2) | 110 (69.6) | 48 (30.4) | |||||||||
Yes (n = 16) | 15 (93.8) | 1 (6.3) | 8 (50.0) | 8 (50.0) | 9 (56.3) | 7 (43.8) |
Code | Suicidal Ideation | Depression | Anxiety | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
p-Value | OR | 95% CI | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | ||
R | Resilience | |||||||||
Low resilience | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||||
Normal resilience | 0.54 | 0.71 | 0.23–2.14 | 0.51 | 0.79 | 0.39–1.60 | 0.56 | 0.76 | 0.31–1.88 | |
High resilience | 0.18 | 0.33 | 0.64–1.66 | 0.66 | 0.47 | 0.21–1.05 | 0.03 | 0.19 | 0.04–0.91 | |
MIL | Mental ill-health symptoms | |||||||||
Depression | 0.01 | 14.63 | 1.89–113.39 | |||||||
Anxiety | 0.00 | 8.29 | 2.76–24.96 |
Code | Coping Strategies | Descriptive Statistics | Univariate Logistic Regression | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Depression | Anxiety | ||||||||
Mean | R | p | OR | 95% CI | p | OR | 95% CI | ||
Problem-focused coping | |||||||||
Planful problem-solving (α = 0.76) | |||||||||
C1 | Knew what had to be done, so I doubled my efforts to make the thing work | 3.11 | 8 | 0.74 | 1.22 | 0.38–3.94 | 0.00 | 0.09 | 0.03–0.31 |
C2 | Came out with a couple of different solutions to the problem | 3.22 | 5 | 0.99 | - | - | 0.99 | 0.00 | - |
C3 | Made a plan of action and followed it | 3.14 | 7 | 0.79 | 1.21 | 0.29–5.02 | 0.39 | 0.48 | 0.09–2.54 |
Positive reappraisal (α = 0.71) | |||||||||
C4 | Came out of the experience better than when I went in | 3.28 | 4 | 0.53 | 1.54 | 0.40–5.93 | 0.78 | 1.36 | 0.16–11.38 |
C5 | Changed or grew as a person in a good way | 3.28 | 3 | 0.68 | 0.60 | 0.53–6.70 | 0.37 | 0.33 | 0.03–3.74 |
C6 | Rediscovered what is important in life | 3.29 | 2 | 0.51 | 1.84 | 0.30–11.27 | 0.13 | 0.24 | 0.04–1.49 |
C7 | Found a new faith | 2.57 | 18 | 0.80 | 1.09 | 0.56–2.11 | 0.15 | 2.27 | 0.74–7.00 |
C8 | Prayed to withstand or succeed | 3.35 | 1 | 0.99 | 1.00 | 0.29–3.42 | 0.00 | 0.17 | 0.05–0.60 |
Seeking social support (α = 0.78) | |||||||||
C9 | Talk to someone who could do something concrete about the problem | 2.83 | 13 | 0.79 | 0.85 | 0.26–2.79 | 0.29 | 0.47 | 0.12–1.88 |
C10 | Talk to someone to find out more about the situation | 2.77 | 14 | 0.07 | 0.79 | 0.85–5.31 | 0.04 | 0.29 | 0.09–0.93 |
C11 | Talk to someone about how I was feeling | 2.62 | 16 | 0.16 | 2.15 | 0.75–6.20 | 0.35 | 2.69 | 0.34–21.30 |
Confrontive coping (α = 0.69) | |||||||||
C12 | Expressed anger toward the person who caused the problem | 2.05 | 22 | 0.26 | 1.45 | 0.75–2.79 | 0.49 | 1.41 | 0.53–3.77 |
C13 | Tried to get the person responsible to change his or her mind | 2.59 | 17 | 0.36 | 1.50 | 0.63–3.57 | 0.16 | 4.38 | 0.56–34.00 |
Emotion-focused coping | |||||||||
Accept responsibility (α = 0.72) | |||||||||
C14 | Realised I had brought the problem on myself | 2.11 | 21 | 0.02 | 2.28 | 1.17–4.41 | 0.47 | 0.72 | 0.30–1.76 |
C15 | Criticised or lectured myself | 2.84 | 11 | 0.66 | 1.23 | 0.49–3.13 | 0.23 | 3.51 | 0.45–27.45 |
C16 | I made a promise to myself that things would be different next time | 3.16 | 6 | 0.99 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.72 | 0.66 | 0.07–6.18 |
Escape-Avoidance (α = 0.75) | |||||||||
C17 | Wished that the situation would go away or somehow be over | 2.99 | 9 | 0.99 | 0.29 | 1.03–3.48 | 0.99 | - | - |
C18 | I had fantasies about how things might turn out | 2.83 | 12 | 0.25 | 1.76 | 0.67–4.62 | 0.99 | - | - |
C20 | Tried to lose myself for a while by smoking | 1.39 | 25 | 0.67 | 0.85 | 0.41–1.79 | 0.12 | 2.13 | 0.83–5.43 |
C21 | Used alcohol to make myself feel better | 1.35 | 26 | 0.18 | 1.66 | 0.79–3.46 | 0.22 | 1.79 | 0.71–4.53 |
C22 | Tried to make myself feel better by eating | 2.01 | 23 | 0.08 | 1.73 | 0.94–3.20 | 0.01 | 4.06 | 1.33–12.42 |
C23 | Let my feelings out, like crying or venting my emotions | 1.76 | 24 | 0.00 | 2.69 | 1.44–4.99 | 0.83 | 0.91 | 0.39–2.14 |
Self-controlling | |||||||||
C19 | Kept others from knowing how bad things were | 2.43 | 20 | 0.25 | 1.59 | 0.73–3.46 | 0.80 | 1.16 | 0.37–3.66 |
Distancing (α = 0.73) | |||||||||
C24 | Didn’t let it get to me and refused to think about it too much | 2.52 | 19 | 0.61 | 1.24 | 0.54–2.86 | 0.99 | - | - |
C25 | Went on as if nothing had happened | 2.75 | 15 | 0.99 | 1.00 | 0.41–2.46 | 0.19 | 3.94 | 0.51–30.68 |
C26 | Made light of the situation and refused to get too serious about it | 2.87 | 10 | 0.96 | 1.03 | 0.33–3.21 | 0.91 | 0.92 | 0.19–4.41 |
Code | Coping Skills | Frequency | Percentage |
---|---|---|---|
Problem-Focused Coping | |||
Planful problem-solving | |||
C3 | Made a plan of action and followed it | 5 | 38.46 |
C2 | Came out with a different solution to the problem | 2 | 15.38 |
Positive reappraisal | |||
C8 | Prayed to withstand or succeed | 8 | 61.54 |
C7 | Explore other faith | 3 | 23.08 |
Seeking social support | |||
C11 | Speak to someone about the problem | 11 | 84.62 |
Confrontive coping | |||
C12 | Expressed anger toward the person who caused the problem | 3 | 23.08 |
Stress-reducing activity | |||
NC1 | Take some rest | 4 | 30.77 |
Emotion-focused coping | |||
Accept responsibility | |||
C16 | I made a promise to myself that things would be different next | 1 | 7.69 |
Escape-Avoidance | |||
C22 | Tried to make myself feel better by eating | 3 | 23.08 |
NC2 | Transfer aggression to my family (i.e., took it out on other people) | 1 | 7.69 |
Documents with code(s) | 13 | 100.00 | |
Documents without code(s) | 0 | 0.00 | |
Analysed documents | 13 | 100.00 |
Resilience | Emotion-Focused | Problem-Focused | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Escape-Avoidance | Planful Problem-Solving | Positive Reappraisal | |||||||
p-Value | OR | 95% CI | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | |
Low * | |||||||||
High | 0.047 | 0.46 | 0.22, 0.99 | 0.01 | 17.21 | 2.06, 143.6 | 0.01 | 20.09 | 2.44, 165.0 |
Overall model | |||||||||
R → CP | R2 = 0.035, 2 LI = 170.835 | R2 = 0.204, 2 LI = 53.478 | R2 = 0.226, 2 LI = 57.172 | ||||||
CP → R | R2 = 0.031, 2 LI = 213.255 | R2 = 0.089, 2 LI = 205.691 | R2 = 0.106, 2 LI = 203.446 |
Model summary | ||||||
−2 LL | ModelLL | df | p | McFadden | CoxSnell | Nagelkrk |
122.5892 | 20.6423 | 3.0000 | 0.0001 | 0.1441 | 0.1119 | 0.1994 |
Coeff | se | z | p | LLCI | UPCI | |
Constant | −0.693 | 0.866 | −0.800 | 0.424 | −2.391 | 1.004 |
CP1 | −0.799 | 0.941 | −0.848 | 0.396 | −2.644 | 1.047 |
Res | 2.303 | 1.396 | 1.649 | 0.099 | −0.434 | 5.040 |
Int_1 | −3.258 | 1.486 | −2.193 | 0.028 | −6.170 | −0.347 |
Likelihood ratio test(s) of highest order unconditional interactions(s): | ||||||
Chi-sq | df | p | ||||
X*W | 5.7393 | 1.0000 | 0.0166 | |||
Conditional effects of the focal predictor at values of the moderator(s): | ||||||
Res | Effect | se | Z | p | LLCI | ULCI |
0.0000 | −0.7985 | 0.9413 | −0.8483 | 0.3963 | −2.6435 | 1.0465 |
1.0000 | −4.0566 | 1.1492 | −3.5298 | 0.0004 | −6.3091 | −1.8042 |
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Nwaogu, J.M.; Chan, A.P.C. The Impact of Coping Strategies and Individual Resilience on Anxiety and Depression among Construction Supervisors. Buildings 2022, 12, 2148. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12122148
Nwaogu JM, Chan APC. The Impact of Coping Strategies and Individual Resilience on Anxiety and Depression among Construction Supervisors. Buildings. 2022; 12(12):2148. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12122148
Chicago/Turabian StyleNwaogu, Janet M., and Albert P. C. Chan. 2022. "The Impact of Coping Strategies and Individual Resilience on Anxiety and Depression among Construction Supervisors" Buildings 12, no. 12: 2148. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12122148