International Comparative Pilot Study of Spatial Skill Development in Engineering Students through Autonomous Augmented Reality-Based Training
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- A significant difference exists in the initial spatial skill level of Spanish and Peruvian engineering students. The Spanish participants possess a higher level than their Peruvian cohorts.
- No differences in spatial skill levels based on gender were observed in either group, as found in studies run in developing countries over recent decades.
- Training was effective at both universities, as all students made significant gains in their level of spatial intelligence.
- No significant difference was found between the study groups at the two universities.
- In both groups (Spanish and Peruvians) there was no difference based on gender i.e., both male and female participants made the same gains.
- The training served to help both Spanish and Peruvian students improve mental rotation skills (spatial relations) to the same degree.
- A difference was detected between both groups with regards to improvements in the component spatial visualization. In this case, the experimental group in Peru made greater gains than the experimental group in Spain.
2. Related Research
2.1. Spatial Abilities: Components, Measuring Instruments, and Training Methods
- Mental rotation or spatial relation: “The ability to imagine rotations of 2D and 3D objects as a whole body.” Mental rotation is therefore the mental speed involved in twisting and turning simple shapes and recognizing them once in another position.
- Spatial visualization: “The ability to imagine rotations of objects, or their parts, in three spatial dimensions by folding and unfolding.” Visualization is therefore the ability to mentally manage complex shapes.
2.2. Importance in Engineering Studies
2.3. Virtual Technologies and Spatial Abilities
3. Study Objectives
- Establish the symmetry or asymmetry in spatial skills of engineering students from different social and cultural backgrounds who are starting engineering degrees run at two universities in different countries;
- Analyze gains in spatial skills produced by tasks forming part of AR-based training sessions.
4. Methodology
4.1. Research Design and Procedure
4.2. Measuring Instruments
- Orientation tests (MRT): As seen on the left in Figure 1, this instrument contains tasks that require users to imagine rotations and transformations in two and three dimensions. Some authors have pointed out that these tests may influence mental rotation and spatial perception factors.
- Three-dimensional visualization tests (DAT5-SR): As seen on the right in Figure 1, this instrument contains tasks that require users to visualize a three-dimensional object created from a two-dimensional pattern. Thus, students are required to mentally fold a flat object in order to choose the correct 3D object out of the alternatives provided.
4.2.1. Mental Rotation Test (MRT)
4.2.2. Differential Aptitude Test (DAT)
4.3. Participants
4.4. Training Material
- Level 1 (Knowledge) contains three types of tasks. Identify vertices and faces in orthographic views and axonometric projections.
- Level 2 (Comprehension) contains two types of tasks. Identify orthographic views.
- Level 3 (Application/Analysis) contains two types of tasks. Identify the spatial relation between objects to identify how many objects are in contact with a selected object; identify the minimum number of views to define an object.
- Level 4 (Synthesis) contains two types of tasks. Sketch the missing orthographic view.
- Level 5 (Evaluation) contains one type of task. Sketch the axonometric perspective.
5. Results and Analysis
5.1. Analysis of Samples
5.2. Analysis of Spatial Awareness Skills of Both University Populations Prior to the Intervention
5.3. Analysis of Spatial Skill Gains in ULL Population
- HR1ULL: the experimental group demonstrates an improvement in spatial visualization measured with the DAT5-SR following the proposed training experiment.
- HR2ULL: the experimental group demonstrates an improvement in spatial relation measured with the MRT following the proposed training experiment.
- HR3ULL: the gain scores in spatial visualization are equal for male and female participants.
- HR4ULL: the gain scores in spatial relation are equal for male and female participants.
5.4. Analysis of Spatial skill Gains in UCSP Population
- HR1UCSP: the experimental group demonstrates an improvement in spatial visualization measured with the DAT5-SR following the proposed training experiment.
- HR2UCSP: the experimental group demonstrates an improvement in spatial relation measured with the MRT following the proposed training experiment.
- HR3UCSP: the gain scores in spatial visualization are equal for male and female participants.
- HR4UCSP: the gain scores in spatial relation are equal for male and female participants.
5.5. Comparison Spatial Skill Gains between ULL and UCSP Populations
- HR5: There is no significant difference in spatial ability (MRT and DAT5-SR) between the experimental groups of each university.
- HR6: There is no significant difference in spatial ability gain scores by gender between the experimental groups of each university.
6. Discussions
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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UCSP | ULL | ||
---|---|---|---|
Total Population | 134 | 178 | |
Experimental Group (n = 31) | Male | 19 | 58 |
Female | 12 | 26 | |
Total | 31 | 84 | |
Control Group (n = 31) | Male | 21 | 15 |
Female | 10 | 10 | |
Total | 31 | 25 |
Group | Pre-MRT Mean Value (SD) | Pre-DAT5-SR Mean Value (SD) |
---|---|---|
Total population ULL (N = 178) | 19.05 (8.40) | 27.96 (9.20) |
Group AR ULL (n = 84) | 15.85 (6.55) | 25.99 (9.46) |
Group CT ULL (n = 25) | 17.44 (9.82) | 28.40 (10.17) |
Total population UCSP (N= 134) | 17.01 (7.46) | 24.51 (8.27) |
Group AR UCSP (n = 31) | 18.52 (7.80) | 26.42 (7.47) |
Group CT UCSP (n = 31) | 16.00 (7.46) | 22.94 (8.14) |
Test administered/ | Group | Kolmogorov–Smirnov | Shapiro–Wilk | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
University | F | gL | Sig. | F | gL | Sig. | |
MRT_ULL | Total population_ULL | 0.083 | 178 | 0.004 | |||
AR_ULL | 0.111 | 84 | 0.012 | ||||
CT_ULL | 0.917 | 25 | 0.044 | ||||
DAT5-SR_ULL | Total Population_ULL | 0.045 | 178 | 0.200 (*) | |||
AR_ULL | 0.082 | 84 | 0.200 (*) | ||||
CT_ULL | 0.965 | 25 | 0.526 | ||||
MRT_UCSP | Total Population_UCSP | 0.089 | 134 | 0.011 | |||
AR_UCSP | 0.908 | 31 | 0.012 | ||||
CT_UCSP | 0.937 | 31 | 0.069 | ||||
DAT5-SR_UCSP | Total Population_UCSP | 0.070 | 134 | 0.200 (*) | |||
AR_UCSP | 0.972 | 31 | 0.573 | ||||
CT_UCSP | 0.981 | 31 | 0.828 |
Groups | Gender | Pre-MRT | Post-MRT | Gain MRT | Pre-DAT | Post-DAT | Gain DAT |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Group AR ULL | Males (n = 58) | 16.86 (6.98) | 25.10 (7.43) | 8.24 (6.21) | 25.81 (9.31) | 34.97 (9.75) | 9.16 (5.31) |
Females (n = 26) | 13.58 (4.85) | 21.23 (8.84) | 7.65 (6.51) | 26.38 (9.96) | 34.88 (8.89) | 8.50 (5.26) | |
Total (n = 84) | 15.85 (6.55) | 23.90 (8.04) | 8.06 (6.27) | 25.99 (9.46) | 34.94 (9.44) | 8.95 (5.27) | |
Group CT ULL | Males (n = 15) | 19.93 (10.54) | 25.87 (9.51) | 5.93 (5.08) | 30.80 (11.14) | 35.17 (12.38) | 4.47 (6.79) |
Females (n = 10) | 13.70 (7.62) | 16.40 (7.93) | 2.70 (1.89) | 24.80 (7.67) | 30.90 (10.87) | 6.10 (7.88) | |
Total (n = 25) | 17.44 (9.82) | 22.08 (9.94) | 4.64 (4.36) | 28.40 (10.17) | 33.52 (11.77) | 5.12 (7.13) | |
Group AR UCSP | Males (n = 19) | 19.47 (8.18) | 28.00 (8.58) | 8.53 (8.52) | 24.58 (7.09) | 38.74 (6.43) | 14.16 (6.36) |
Females (n = 12) | 17.00 (7.23) | 21.58 (8.65) | 4.58 (5.40) | 29.33 (7.41) | 40.67 (6.44) | 11.33 (4.46) | |
Total (n = 31) | 18.52 (7.80) | 25.52 (9.04) | 7.00 (7.62) | 26.42 (7.47) | 39.48 (6.40) | 13.06 (5.79) | |
Group CT UCSP | Males (n = 21) | 17.14 (8.22) | 19.05 (7.89) | 1.90 (1.41) | 21.33 (7.66) | 23.14 (7.06) | 1.81 (1.57) |
Females (n = 10) | 13.60 (5.06) | 16.90 (2.92) | 3.30 (2.36) | 26.30 (8.49) | 28.00 (6.73) | 1.70 (2.11) | |
Total (n = 31) | 16.00 (7.46) | 18.35 (6.72) | 2.35 (1.85) | 22.94 (8.14) | 24.71 (7.23) | 1.77 (1.72) |
Source | Type III Sum of Squares | gL | Root Mean Square | F | Significance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adjusted model | 145.963 (a) | 3 | 48.654 | 1.105 | 0.350 |
Intersection | 4389.275 | 1 | 4389.275 | 99.712 | 0.000 |
UNIV | 40.484 | 1 | 40.484 | 0.920 | 0.340 |
GEND | 107.089 | 1 | 107.089 | 2.433 | 0.122 |
UNIV * GEND | 58.742 | 1 | 58.742 | 1.334 | 0.250 |
Error | 4886.159 | 111 | 44.019 | ||
Total | 11,982.000 | 115 | |||
Adjusted total | 5032.122 | 114 |
Source | Type III Sum of Squares | gL | Root Mean Square | F | Significance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adjusted model | 449.277 (a) | 3 | 149.759 | 5.122 | 0.002 |
Intersection | 9712.699 | 1 | 9712.699 | 332.207 | 0.000 |
UNIV | 320.366 | 1 | 320.366 | 10.958 | 0.001 |
GEND | 63.175 | 1 | 63.175 | 2.161 | 0.144 |
UNIV * GEND | 24.554 | 1 | 24.554 | 0.840 | 0.361 |
Error | 3245.296 | 111 | 29.237 | ||
Total | 15,335.000 | 115 | |||
Adjusted total | 3694.574 | 114 |
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Gómez-Tone, H.C.; Martin-Gutierrez, J.; Valencia Anci, L.; Mora Luis, C.E. International Comparative Pilot Study of Spatial Skill Development in Engineering Students through Autonomous Augmented Reality-Based Training. Symmetry 2020, 12, 1401. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12091401
Gómez-Tone HC, Martin-Gutierrez J, Valencia Anci L, Mora Luis CE. International Comparative Pilot Study of Spatial Skill Development in Engineering Students through Autonomous Augmented Reality-Based Training. Symmetry. 2020; 12(9):1401. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12091401
Chicago/Turabian StyleGómez-Tone, Hugo César, Jorge Martin-Gutierrez, Lili Valencia Anci, and Carlos E. Mora Luis. 2020. "International Comparative Pilot Study of Spatial Skill Development in Engineering Students through Autonomous Augmented Reality-Based Training" Symmetry 12, no. 9: 1401. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12091401
APA StyleGómez-Tone, H. C., Martin-Gutierrez, J., Valencia Anci, L., & Mora Luis, C. E. (2020). International Comparative Pilot Study of Spatial Skill Development in Engineering Students through Autonomous Augmented Reality-Based Training. Symmetry, 12(9), 1401. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12091401