Sustainable Management of Willow Forest Landscapes: A Review of Ecosystem Functions and Conservation Strategies

Abstract

Willow stands (Salix spp.) are an essential part of riparian ecosystems, as they sustain biodiversity and provide bioenergy solutions. The present review synthesizes the global scientific literature about the management of willow stands. In order to achieve this goal, we used a dual approach combining bibliometric analysis with traditional literature review. As such, we consulted 416 publications published between 1978 and 2024. This allowed us to identify key species, ecosystem services, conservation strategies, and management issues. The results we have obtained show a diversity of approaches, with an increase in short-rotation coppice (SRC) systems and the multiple roles covered by willow stands (carbon sequestration, biomass production, riparian restoration, and habitat provision). The key trends we have identified show a shift toward topics such as climate resilience, ecological restoration, and precision forestry. This trend has become especially pronounced over the past decade (2014–2024), as reflected in the increasing use of these keywords in the literature. However, as willow systems expand in scale and function—from biomass production to ecological restoration—they also raise complex challenges, including invasive tendencies in non-native regions and uncertainties surrounding biodiversity impacts and soil carbon dynamics over the long term. The present review is a guide for forest policies and, more specifically, for future research, linking the need to integrate and use adaptive strategies in order to maintain the willow stands.

1. Introduction

Willow stands, dominated by species of the genus Salix, occur across a wide range of geographical regions, particularly in riparian zones, wetlands, and colder northern climates. Known for their ecological plasticity, willows thrive in diverse habitats—from arctic tundra to temperate lowlands—and play an essential role in the functionality and resilience of these ecosystems.

Beyond their botanical interest, willow stands are increasingly recognized as vital components of sustainable landscapes due to the broad range of ecosystem services they provide. These include improving water quality, reducing flood risks, and enhancing carbon storage, functions that are central to climate change mitigation and adaptation [1,2]. In addition to stabilizing soils and regulating hydrology in vulnerable catchments, willow ecosystems support high levels of biodiversity, providing critical habitats for numerous plant and animal species [3,4]. Their capacity to rehabilitate degraded land and sequester carbon makes them valuable allies in nature-based solutions, appealing to stakeholders in conservation, agriculture, water management, and climate policy alike. As such, willow stands are not only ecologically significant but also socioeconomically relevant, offering practical tools for building climate-resilient and multifunctional landscapes [5,6].

However, as willow cultivation expands into new regions and takes on more functions—such as biomass production, land restoration, and water quality improvement—it raises important questions about land use trade-offs. For instance, allocating marginal or agricultural land to willow plantations may displace food crops, alter local land tenure patterns, or reduce the area available for conventional forestry [7,8]. These shifts highlight the need to assess how willow-based systems fit into integrated land management frameworks, particularly where competing land use priorities exist.

These ecosystems are crucial for riparian zone conservation but have been significantly diminished due to river damming (for flood control, hydropower, and navigation) and land drainage for agriculture. Restoration efforts, such as the renaturation of wetland areas, aim to recover these degraded habitats. For marginal cropland, the establishment of shrubby willow plantations can replace traditional crops like maize or hay. This land use transition has multiple benefits, including reducing nutrient runoff and erosion, enhancing biodiversity, and promoting climate resilience. Additionally, it can increase access to recreational spaces [1].

This shift toward willow-based restoration highlights a broader trend in land management: the repurposing of degraded or underutilized land for multifunctional uses. Willow systems exemplify how land can be managed to provide simultaneous ecological and economic benefits, particularly in landscapes facing pressure from urbanization, agricultural intensification, and climate variability [9,10].

Willow ecosystems support a diverse range of fauna, including birds, gastropods, amphibians, fish, invertebrates, and fungi [11,12]. Short rotation coppices (SRCs) represent a transitional strategy for restoring biodiversity in polluted, eroded, or degraded environments [13]. The dense root systems of willows stabilize stream banks and shorelines, playing a key role in controlling erosion [14,15].

Willows are effective biofilters capable of removing pollutants from aquatic systems [16,17,18]. Their presence along watercourses—from headwaters to deltas—and near freshwater or brackish bodies helps improve water quality by filtering contaminants and enhancing overall environmental health [19,20].

In addition to their ecological and landscape functions, willow species have notable economic importance. India, for instance, holds a significant position in the production of sports equipment, particularly cricket bats and hockey sticks, which rely heavily on high-quality willow wood. However, the supply of suitable willow—such as Salix alba and Salix fragilis—is increasingly constrained due to limited cultivation, rising demand, and pressures on natural stands. This underscores the need for sustainable management and conservation of willow landscapes, not only for ecosystem service delivery but also for maintaining key economic sectors.

Willow biomass is increasingly recognized not only for its potential as a renewable bioenergy source but also as a valuable feedstock for biochar production. Biochar derived from willow has shown promising results in enhancing soil structure and fertility, particularly in degraded or nutrient-poor soils [21]. Its application has been associated with improved soil moisture retention, especially in clay-rich environments [22], and contributes to carbon sequestration by stabilizing organic carbon in the soil matrix [23]. Furthermore, research indicates that incorporating willow biochar can help mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, such as nitrous oxide and methane, from agricultural soils [24]. Compared with other amendments like biomass ash, willow biochar often delivers superior improvements in soil quality and plant growth [25], making it a sustainable option for both soil restoration and climate change mitigation strategies.

Given these multifunctional roles, willow stands can serve as an integrative land use solution capable of bridging objectives in agriculture, forestry, water protection, and biodiversity conservation. Framing willow management within this nexus helps illustrate their potential in sustainable land planning and policy, an area of growing relevance in both temperate and developing regions.

Due to their rapid growth, ease of propagation from cuttings, and high biomass yield, willows—or some particular species—are considered viable nature-based solutions for carbon sequestration. Short rotation coppices (SRCs) are expanding globally as part of sustainable energy and climate strategies [26].

Climate variability and change are widely recognized as key drivers of forest ecosystem dynamics and their associated services [27,28,29]. These shifts are expected to alter both species composition and forest management practices [29,30]. Meeting these challenges requires proactive adaptation measures and access to region-specific, science-based information to support long-term forest sustainability [31,32,33].

A crucial component of adaptation strategies involves using climate-resilient tree species, provenances, and genetic diversity in afforestation programs to bolster future forest adaptability and biodiversity [34,35,36,37]. In this context, selected willow species, hybrids, and clones are cultivated for enhanced drought tolerance and biomass production [38,39,40,41]. In China, whole-genome sequencing of species such as S. brachista, S. matsudana, S. dunnii, and Chosenia arbutifolia has supported breeding and conservation programs [42,43,44].

Currently, about 70 countries cultivate willows and poplars (Populus spp.), typically in monoculture plantations or, less frequently, as part of mixed-species or agroforestry systems. These fast-growing, vegetatively propagable species of the family Salicaceae are native to temperate and subtropical zones and are adapted to a wide range of climates, from Chinese deserts to the high Andes. Willows are commonly integrated into small-scale forestry and agriculture, providing both wood (industrial roundwood, pulp, boards, veneer, pallets, and furniture) and non-wood products (fodder and fuelwood), as well as ecological services (shade, shelter, and soil and water protection).

In 2005, global willow plantations covered approximately 176,000–90,000 ha for wood production (51%), with the remainder being for environmental functions. Agroforestry use is relatively rare, with New Zealand being an exception due to riverbank stabilization efforts. In Argentina and Sweden, willow cultivation is focused on production, with Sweden using it primarily for renewable energy. China maintains the second-largest area of willow plantations for wood production (21,000 ha) and the largest area for environmental restoration (59,000 ha) [45]. As of 2023, the United States reported 440,191 ha of naturally regenerating willow stands (6.4% with a protective function) and 5658 ha of planted forests, yielding approximately 83,000 m³ and 39,600 m³ of timber from natural and planted stands, respectively [40]. In Europe, data remain fragmented; France hosts about 130,000 ha of natural willow stands and 60 ha of planted willow stands, while Romania has approximately 40,700 ha [38].

Salicylic acid, originally derived from willow bark and leaves, has historically been used as a natural compound for treating cardiovascular conditions, hypertension, respiratory diseases, and chronic rheumatic pain [41,42,43]. However, for more than half a century, aspirin— a synthetic derivative of salicylic acid—has been predominantly produced through chemical synthesis rather than natural extraction. Despite this, salicylic acid’s potential in forest protection has been demonstrated, as it enhances the efficacy of entomopathogenic bacteria in controlling defoliating insects [44]. Additionally, salicylic acid confers resistance to cadmium toxicity and drought stress in willows [45], supporting their role in phytoremediation. Willow SRCs have shown high potential for remediating contaminated soils and contributing to ecosystem renaturalization [46,47].

Although several review articles have been published on willows [48,49,50] and forestry more broadly [51,52,53,54,55,56,57], there remains a lack of comprehensive synthesis focused specifically on the sustainable management of willow stands. To address this gap, this review employed both traditional literature analysis and bibliometric methods to provide an integrated overview of the current knowledge base, identify research trends, and guide future investigations.

The primary objective of this review is to systematically synthesize the scientific literature concerning willow forest management, with emphasis on their ecosystem services, biodiversity support, and contributions to sustainable landscape management. By combining bibliometric and narrative approaches, this study aims to identify key management practices, highlight species-specific insights, and expose knowledge gaps, thereby informing future research agendas and evidence-based forestry and restoration policies involving Salix species.

2. Materials and Methods

The first part of our study includes a bibliometric analysis through which we evaluated the global scientific research on the topic of managing willow stands during the 1978–2024 period. In order to identify relevant publications, we used tools such as the Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-Expanded) within the Web of Science database [58] and Scopus [59]. We then proceeded to evaluate each strategy and identify the most-used keywords. We selected the phrase “management of willow forests” as our main search term. We used this bibliometric approach as this method is already used in numerous fields or research. Most bibliometric studies use a common data source (Thomson Reuters’ Web of Science (WoS) and Elsevier’s Scopus). Studies have shown that the WoS or Scopus can be biased toward fields such as natural sciences, engineering, and biomedical research, to the detriment of social sciences, arts and humanities. In the same manner, there is a predominance of English-language journals compared with other languages. As such, even though both databases have their biases, their coverage was essential for our study, although we do advise being cautious when comparing fields, countries, institutions, or languages [60]. This large bibliometric research was possible through the Science Citation Index (SCI), created in 1963. Now part of the Web of Science (WoS), this database is important as it includes all article types, authors, institutions, and bibliographic references for each article [61]. On the other hand, we did not use Google Scholar as it proved to offer low data quality.

After we identified these two main sources (WoS and Scopus), we used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [62]. Figure 1 illustrates the selection process we used in including the papers for this review. In total, we retrieved 389 publications from Scopus and 347 from the WoS, totaling 736 publications. We then removed 218 duplicates and checked the titles and abstracts of the remaining 518 articles in order to select the articles that fitted our criteria: studies published in English and articles that referred to our selected topic. As such, we excluded non-English papers, previous reviews, non-scientific articles, non-published articles, and letters to editors. In total, we excluded 23 bibliographic sources, 7 papers, 58 articles irrelevant to our topic, and 14 articles that lacked an abstract. In the end, 416 articles remained (Figure 1).

Our bibliometric analysis took into consideration (1) publication types, (2) research areas, (3) publication years, (4) countries, (5) authors, (6) institutions, (7) languages, (8) journals, (9) publishers, and (10) keywords. We used the Web of Science’s Core Collection tools (version 5.35, Clarivate), Scopus, Excel (version 2024) [63], and Geochart [64] in order to process the data. We also used VOSviewer (version 1.6.20) [65] to generate the maps and analysis clusters.

In the second part of our study, we used a traditional literature review, which allowed us to analyze in more detail the 364 selected articles. Our findings were then grouped into 5 main research areas: willow species cited in forest management research; issues published about the management of willow forest; carbon stocks in willow forests; biomass production of willow short-rotation forests; and management actions concerning willow forests.

In this review, “key species” refers to willow species that are frequently cited in the literature, widely distributed across riparian systems, or play a critical ecological role in ecosystem functions such as soil stabilization, habitat provisioning, and biomass production. Figure 2 presents the methodology we used for this article.

3. Results

3.1. Bibliometric Review: Synthesis of the Literature

We identified 416 publications related to this topic. The majority of these were articles (373 articles, specifically 90% of the total publications), followed by 25 proceedings papers (6%), 10 book chapters (2%), and 8 reviews (2%) (Figure 3).

The most frequently used research areas were in environmental science, specifically ecology (158 articles), forestry (98 articles), agriculture (47 articles), and zoology (40 articles) (Figure 4).

Starting from 1978, the number of publications has steadily increased, reaching 30 in 2021 and 25 articles in 2024 (Figure 5).

Authors from 52 countries have published articles on this topic. The most well-represented countries are the USA, Canada, Sweden, and China (Figure 6).

The countries of the authors who published articles on this topic were grouped into several clusters, three of which are more representative: cluster 1 (Czech Republic, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Switzerland); cluster 2 (Australia, Denmark, England, Norway, Scotland, and Sweden); and cluster 3 (Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and New Zealand) (Figure 7).

The vast majority of the articles (93%) were written in English. However, we also identified articles written in other languages, such as Chinese (4 articles), Croatian (3 articles), Czech (1 article), French (1 article), German (5 articles), Hungarian (1 article), Polish (5 articles), Russian (3 articles), Spanish (1 article), and Ukrainian (1 article).

Our inventory identified 182 journals in which articles about management of willow stands were published. Among these, the most representative were Forest Ecology and Management, Biomass & Bioenergy, and the Journal of Wildlife Management (

Table 1. Leading journals publishing articles on management of willow stands.

Crt. No.	Journal	Documents	Citations	Total Link Strength
1	Restoration Ecology	7	71	11
2	River Research and Applications	4	55	10
3	Biomass & Bioenergy	18	625	9
4	Forest Ecology and Management	36	969	9
5	Journal of Wildlife Management	11	176	9
6	Biological Conservation	3	248	8
7	Journal of Environmental Management	5	165	7
8	Ecological Engineering	5	206	5
9	Ecological Modelling	3	57	5
10	Biodiversity and Conservation	4	36	3
11	Forests	8	131	3
12	Annals of Forest Science	4	95	2
13	Canadian Journal of Forest Research	4	75	1
14	Wetlands	6	143	1

and Figure 8).

The institutions to which the authors of these articles belong, ranked by importance, are as follows: the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (18 articles); the State University of New York (10 articles); the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), (7 articles); and the University of Arizona United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), (5 articles).

Among the publishers who have published articles on this subject, the most represented ones were Elsevier (78 articles), Wiley (48 articles), Springer (44 articles), MDPI (23 articles), and Pergamon Elsevier Science (21 articles).

In these articles, the most frequently used keywords were management, willow, vegetation, forest, and growth (

Table 2. Most frequently used keywords in articles on management of willow stands.

Crt. No.	Keyword	Occurrences	Total Link Strength
1	management	61	157
2	willow	52	136
3	vegetation	45	118
4	restoration	27	91
5	forest	38	87
6	growth	36	86
7	biodiversity	24	80
8	conservation	25	79
9	dynamics	28	74
10	habitat	21	72
11	river	20	64
12	diversity	19	52
13	Salix	22	50
14	riparian	14	48
15	biomass	20	46

).

Based on their connections, keywords can be grouped into several clusters, the most important ones being biodiversity, boreal forest, conservation, ecology, forest management, habitat, landscape, population, and riparian vegetation for the first cluster and bioenergy, biomass, competition, forest, growth, nitrogen, Salix, soil, water, and willow for the second cluster (Figure 9).

Regarding the evolution over time of keyword usage, it can be observed that in the early period (2011–2013), the most commonly used words were Salix, patterns, landscape, population disturbance, succession, and biomass production. In the middle period (2013–2015), the predominant keywords were management, growth, willow, forest, and vegetation. In the most recent period (2015–2018), the keywords used were climate change, impacts, biodiversity, restoration, and habitat selection (Figure 10).

3.2. Willow Species Cited in Forest Management Research

A significant number of willow species are cited in studies concerning their management aspects. A total of 44 distinct willow species were identified across various geographic regions and research contexts, underscoring the global importance and versatility of this genus (

Table 3. Willow species mentioned in different articles concerning the management of willow stands.

Cur. No.	Willow Species	Analyzed Issue	Country	Cited Article
1	Salix alba L.	Seed release in riparian Salicaceae; genetic diversity and stand structure	Spain, Italy	Bourgeois and González, 2019; Sitzia et al., 2018 [66,67]
2	Salix amygdaloides Andersson	Expansion of woody vegetation on a river reservoir	USA	Beall et al., 2022 [68]
3	Salix aquatica L.	Effects of domestic sewage sludge, conifer bark ash, and wood fiber waste on soil characteristics and the growth	Finland	Lumme and Laiho, 1988 [69]
4	Salix arbuscula L.	Impact of microsite characteristics on growth and survival of willows	UK	Shaw et al., 2013 [70]
5	Salix atopantha C.K. Schneider	Chrysomela vigintipunctata, a major forest pest of willow	China	Kou et al., 2025 [71]
6	Salix atrocinerea Brot.	Temperate riverside forests without alder trees	Spain	Guitian, 2010 [72]
7	Salix babylonica L.	The effect of afforestation type on soil nitrogen dynamics; impacts of climate change conditions on the potential distribution of Anoplophora glabripennis	China	Zhai et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2024 [73,74]
8	Salix babylonica x Salix alba cv 131/27	Attack of the wood borer Platypus mutatus Chapuis	Argentina	Casaubon et al., 2004 [75]
9	Salix bebbiana Sarg.	Capping dewatered oil sands fine fluid tailings with salvaged reclamation soils	Canada	Lalonde et al., 2020 [76]
10	Salix bonplandiana (H.B.K.)-Kunth	Diversity of riparian ecosystems	Mexico	Scott et al., 2009 [77]
11	Salix boothii Dorn	Historical trends in willow cover along streams	USA	Manoukian and Marlow, 2002 [78]
12	Salix canariensis Desf.	The ancient forests of La Gomera, Canary Islands and their sensitivity to environmental change	Spain	Nogue et al., 2013 [79]
13	Salix candida Flugge ex. Wild.	Water conservation in plant species	Canada	Blanken and Rouse, 1996 [80]
14	Salix caprea L.	Modeling forage potential for red deer; pioneer broadleaves species from tailing dumps	Slovakia; Romania	Konopka et al., 2020; Popa and Popa, 2021 [81,82]
15	Salix cinerea L.	Wetland vegetation trajectory following willow invasion	New Zealand	Burge et al., 2017 [83]
16	Salix x dasyclados [SV1]	Soil organic carbon content	SUA	Pacaldo et al., 2013 [84]
17	Salix dasyclados Wimm.	Leaf trait variation and decomposition	Canada	Coleman et al., 2020 [85]
18	Salix discolor Mühl. (Sd)	Influence of plantation site and wastewater sludge fertilization on the performance and foliar nutrient status	Canada	Labrecque and Teodorescu, 2001 [86]
19	Salix exigua Nuttall	Erosional consequences; biomasses of arthropod taxa	USA	Vincent et al., 2009; Wiesenborn, 2011 [87,88]
20	Salix geyerana Andersson	historical trends in willow cover along streams	USA	Manoukian and Marlow, 2002 [78]
21	Salix gooddingii C.R. Ball	Invasive ambrosia beetle; riparian evapotranspiration	USA	Boland, 2016; Goodrich et al., 2000 [89,90]
22	Salix gracilistyla Miq.	Nuclear DNA markers	Korea	Seo et al., 2024 [91]
23	Salix helvetica Vill.	Spider mites and phytoseiid mites on willows	Poland	Puchalska et al., 2014 [92]
24	Salix humilis Marshall	Vegetation change in remnant barrens; light attenuation by early successional plants	Canada	Anderson et al., 2000; Shropshire et al., 2001 [93,94]
25	Salix interior Nutt.	Water conservation in plant species	Canada	Blanken and Rouse, 1996 [80]
26	Salix lapponum L.	Impact of microsite characteristics on growth and survival of willows	UK	Shaw et al., 2013 [70]
27	Salix lasiandra Muhl.	Riparian vegetation variability	USA	Wasklewicz, 2001 [95]
28	Salix lasiolepis Benth.	Invasive ambrosia beetle	USA	Boland, 2016 [89]
29	Salix linearifolia Nutt.	Endemic forest association to Pamir	Tajikistan	Nowak et al., 2015 [96]
30	Salix matsudana L.	Pseudomonas fluorescens strain R124 inoculation; the Asian longhorned beetle; soil bacterial communities	China	Liu et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2024 [97,98]
31	Salix myrsinifolia Salisb.	Impact of microsite characteristics on growth and survival of willows	UK	Shaw et al., 2013 [70]
32	Salix nigra Marshall	Breeding bird assemblages; Species-specific growth capacity for floodplain forest trees	USA	Knutson et al., 2005; McAlhaney et al., 2020 [99,100]
33	Salix paraplesia Schneid.	Initial carbon quality of newly shed foliar litter	China	Yang et al., 2022 [101]
34	Salix x pet-susu	Agricultural mulch film as a means of effective weed control	Japan	Han et al., 2020 [102]
35	Salix planifolia Pursh	Water conservation in plant species	Canada	Blanken and Rouse, 1996 [80]
36	Salix purpurea L.	Use a model to assess the shading potential	Austria	Holzapfel et al., 2013 [103]
37	Salix reticulata L.	Water conservation in plant species	Canada	Blanken and Rouse, 1996 [80]
38	Salix × rubens	Invasion by a non-native willow in Brazilian subtropical highlands	Brazil	Suhs et al., 2020 [104]
39	Salix sachalinensis Trautv. & C.A. May	Agricultural mulch film as a means of effective weed control	Japan	Han et al., 2020 [102]
40	Salix salviifolia Brot.	Species structure and composition in Mediterranean riparian forests	Spain	Magdaleno et al., 2014 [105]
41	Salix schwerinii E.Wolf	Stand growth	Sweden	Telenius, 1999 [106]
42	Salix scouleriana Barratt	Nutritional quality of forages used by elk	USA	Alldredge et al., 2002 [107]
43	Salix viminalis L. and Salix dasyclados Wimm.(clone)	Nitrogen concentrations in groundwater; clonal and genetic diversity patterns	Sweden; Germany	Arronson et al., 2002; Mosner et al., 2012 [108,109]
44	Salix wilhelmsiana M. Bieb	Invasive insect pest of forest trees	Pakistan; Tajikistan	Ayub et al., 2023; Nowak et al., 2015 [96,110]

).

Among the most frequently studied species are Salix alba, S. babylonica, S. purpurea, S. nigra, and hybrids such as S. × rubens and S. × dasyclados. These species are often selected due to their ecological dominance in riparian zones and their relevance to applied environmental purposes. For example, S. alba has been studied for reproductive ecology and genetic diversity in Mediterranean systems [66,67], while S. purpurea has been used in agroforestry to assess shading effects [103].

Other species, including S. amygdaloides, S. exigua, and S. boothii, have been evaluated for roles in erosion control and vegetation dynamics in North American floodplains [68,78,88]. Additionally, willows such as S. dasyclados and S. discolor have been prominent in phytoremediation studies related to wastewater reuse and contaminated soils [85,86].

Species such as S. caprea, S. humilis, and S. lapponum have shown potential for colonizing disturbed sites, including tailings and nutrient-poor soils [70,82]. Research has also examined pest and disease interactions in species like S. babylonica, S. matsudana, and S. wilhelmsiana, particularly under pressure from invasive insects [74,89,110].

While most studies focus on commonly distributed willows, some have targeted region-specific or endemic taxa such as S. canariensis in the Canary Islands [79] and S. linearifolia in Central Asia [96], thereby extending our understanding of Salix adaptation and management across diverse ecological and biogeographic contexts.

3.3. Issues Addressed in Published Articles Concerning Willow Forest Management

There are multiple aspects concerning the management of willow stands. Several of these aspects are presented in

Table 4. Various issues analyzed in published articles on willow stands.

Cur. No.	Analyzed Issue	Country	Cited Article
1	Carbon implications of converting cropland to bioenergy crops	General	Albanito et al., 2016 [111]
2	Effects of climate warming and disturbance on trees	China	Li et al., 2013 [112]
3	Effect of fertilization on biomass production	Finland	Hytönen and Kaunisto, 1999 [113]
4	Effects of wildfire on riparian trees	USA	Bock and Bock, 2014 [114]
5	Effects of willow in short rotation on biodiversity	Germany	Nerlich et al., 2012 [115]
6	Energy forestry with willows	Germany	Boelcke and Kahle, 2008 [116]
7	Estimates of canopy volume using unmanned aerial systems	USA	Karl et al., 2020 [117]
8	Estimation and relevance of bark proportion in a willow stand	Sweden	Adler et al., 2005 [118]
9	General patterns of beavers’ selective foraging	Hungary	Juhasz et al., 2023 [119]
10	Importance of vegetation type on avian density	USA	Brand et al., 2010 [120]
11	Macroinvertebrate communities	Australia	Jayawardana et al., 2006 [121]
12	Mycorrhizal fungal diversity in willow stands	Netherlands	Parádi and Baar, 2006 [122]
13	Predict operational events in motor-manual willow felling operations	Romania	Borz, 2021 [123]
14	Resources for flower-visiting insects	Denmark	Reddersen, 2001 [124]
15	Root distribution of tree species from windbreaks	Canada	Plante et al., 2014 [125]
16	Short-term drivers of post-fire forest regeneration	Italy	Mantero et al., 2023 [126]
17	Soil organic carbon pool and chemical composition	China	Ji et al., 2020 [127]
18	Tree-related microhabitats	Poland	Przepióra and Ciach, 2022 [128]
19	Tree species selectivity by moose	Sweden	Mansson et al., 2007 [129]
20	Use of short-cycle willow plantations as biofuel	General	Krasnov and Ragulina, 2021 [130]
21	Water use efficiency of willows	Sweden	Lindroth et al., 1994 [131]
22	Wood ash effects on soil solution	USA	Park et al., 2004 [132]

.

Studies originated from regions including Europe, Asia, North and South America, and Oceania, with noticeable clusters from Sweden, the USA, and Germany, indicating concentrated research activity in temperate climates.

Five main thematic categories emerged. (1) Climate and soil interactions: Several studies assessed carbon storage potential and soil chemical processes within willow systems, emphasizing their relevance for climate mitigation [111,127]. (2) Biodiversity and ecosystem services: Willows support rich biodiversity, including avifauna, insect communities, and fungal assemblages [120,124], highlighting their ecological role beyond biomass production. (3) Forest health and disturbance: Fire impacts [114,126], pest outbreaks, and belowground symbioses such as mycorrhizal associations [122] are prominent topics in understanding resilience and vulnerability. (4) Productivity and bioenergy: Research on short-rotation coppice systems explores yield optimization and energetic efficiency, particularly in European studies [113,130]. (5) Technology and operations: Recent work integrated emerging technologies such as drone monitoring [117] and planning tools for sustainable management [123]. These findings reflect the increasing complexity of managing willow landscapes for multifunctional benefits, requiring integration of ecological knowledge with operational innovation.

3.4. Biomass Production of Willow Short-Rotation Forests and Management Actions Concerning Willow

Converting cropland to bioenergy or woody energy crops such as poplar, willow, and Eucalyptus is considered among the most effective options for increasing carbon sequestration [111]. In willow plantations, carbon is sequestered over the long term, particularly in coarse roots and in both above- and below-ground stools [133]. Additional studies also highlighted the relevance of willow to CO₂ balancing and emissions mitigation strategies [134,135].

Regarding soil organic carbon (SOC), several studies have examined the impacts of SRC establishment and management on soil properties. The specific traits of willow, including high leaf litter production, rapid turnover of fine roots, accumulation and decomposition of coarse roots and stumps, and lack of tillage, are linked to a higher potential for C storage in agricultural land [136,137,138]. However, empirical findings are mixed; while some studies reported increases in SOC after SRC establishment, others observed decreases [139,140,141].

The carbon stock (C-stock) was estimated in three 20-year-old SRF plantations—hybrid poplar, willow, and black locust—located at the same site in Central Italy and unmanaged for the past 15 years. The results showed a C-stock of 47.30 MgC ha⁻¹ for hybrid poplar (65.3% in biomass and 34.7% in deadwood), 23.02 MgC ha⁻¹ for willow (77.6% in biomass and 22.4% in deadwood), and 80.41 MgC ha⁻¹ for black locust (95.9% in biomass and 4.1% in deadwood) [142].

Qin et al. [127] found no significant SOC changes when grasslands or forests were converted to willow plantations. The SOC response ratios remained consistent across both the 0–30 cm and 0–100 cm depths, suggesting notable carbon dynamics even in deeper soil layers. The rate of SOC change was typically highest during the first 10 years post land use conversion and tended to level off within approximately 20 years.

Fossil fuel (oil, gas) prices, pollution (which contributes to climate change), and political implications (including ongoing conflicts in Southwest Asia) have led to the search for alternative energy sources. This resulted in a shift in the use of forestry resources from traditional wood to bioenergy (using fast-growing species of willows, poplars, etc.) production [143,144,145,146]. Shrub willow (Salix spp.) has been identified as a promising perennial woody biomass crop in regions with temperate climates and waterlogged croplands, including Canada, Sweden, Germany, and the USA [147,148]. Biomass produced in short-rotation woody crops (SRWCs) has demonstrated sustainability when evaluated against internationally accepted forest sustainability criteria. These systems provide structurally diverse habitats, support biodiversity, and protect soil and water resources. Furthermore, they allow for carbon-neutral energy production when managed properly, and they contribute to local economic development due to their short supply chains [149].

In the Baltic Sea region, fast-growing species such as willow (Salix spp.) and poplar (Populus spp.) are suitable for short-rotation coppice (SRC) systems. These species support efficient integration into agricultural landscapes, with harvest cycles of 1–5 years for willow and 4–10 years for poplar, offering high flexibility in biomass production [150].

A comparative analysis of biomass energy potential across three forest stand types—chestnut coppice, maritime pine, and poplar and willow SRWCs—showed that maritime pine exhibited the highest energetic value. However, all stand types accumulated comparable carbon concentrations per tree. Notably, maritime pine showed higher nitrogen and sulfur contents, while chestnut bark had a high ash content, which could affect the combustion quality. Species and component selection were identified as key factors to improve fuel quality and minimize emissions [151].

Some willow hybrids (Salix triandra × Salix viminalis “Inger” and Salix schwerinii × Salix viminalis “Tordis”) proved to be a viable solution, providing good biomass production in heavily polluted areas in the Carpathian Basin (Europe) [152]. In Romanian conditions, the 2-year SRC harvesting regime had higher productivity, but the 3-year one had better environmental performance (life cycle impact assessment) [47].

Species within the family Salicaceae, especially Salix and Populus spp., are frequently utilized due to several key traits: their ease of propagation from cuttings, availability of improved genetic stock, rapid biomass production, and strong coppicing ability after harvest [153]. Given the tolerance of Salix to harsh conditions and low-fertility or polluted soils, short-rotation coppice (SRC) willow cultivation is suitable for marginal and agriculturally suboptimal lands [154].

Willow stands are naturally distributed in the riparian habitats. Due to its technological characteristics, the timber of white willow has numerous commercial uses [155].

Restoration of riparian zones using willows requires species matched to the local geomorphology and climate, guided by reference community structures [156]. This is particularly relevant in drier climates where native riparian vegetation once dominated by willows and shrubs must be restored with species adapted to low-moisture conditions [157].

A case study on Salix alba floodplain forests in Lake Kerkini National Park in northern Greece revealed dramatic degradation between 2010 and 2020. The woodland lost about 50% of its area, with mature trees persisting sparsely and few younger cohorts. Restoration could benefit from planting large-sized S. alba individuals and implementing protection measures against buffalo grazing [158].

In Sweden, SRC willow stands (energy forests) provide biomass fuel, grown mostly on abandoned farmland and occasionally on peat bogs or fens. These stands, which are harvested every 2–4 years, contribute to biodiversity in conifer-dominated or intensive agricultural landscapes. Management practices to enhance their conservation value include clone diversity, staggered harvests, the creation of open gaps, and minimizing herbicide and fertilizer use [159].

In the European north of Russia, SRC willow is promoted to address biomass shortages for power plants. Plantations on post-agricultural land are more cost-effective than harvesting natural forests. This strategy includes the use of torrefied hydrolytic lignin as an energy source [160].

Globally, willow cultivation is expanding beyond traditional small-scale applications. The potential of Salix for various products and services, combined with ongoing breeding and new management approaches, supports large-scale implementation of sustainable short-rotation forestry. Willows can function as nutrient recipients in intensive landscapes and as buffers between agriculture and water bodies [35,161,162,163].

Among riparian restoration projects, the most common interventions for promoting Salicaceae regeneration include planting (55%), land contouring (30%), vegetation removal (30%), site selection (26%), and irrigation (24%) [164].

Outside their native range, willows are highly invasive, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere. In riparian zones, they form dense stands, reduce light availability, and alter hydrology and nutrient cycling. As a result, government-funded removal efforts aim to restore ecosystem functions [165].

In the Netherlands, erosion from river regulation and shipping on the Rhine prompted the use of willow planting for bioengineering-based riverbank protection. Trials in 1990 showed that Salix viminalis had the highest survival rate, while S. cinerea performed the worst under sandy beach conditions [166].

Seedling recruitment—critical for genetic diversity in riparian willow populations—requires disturbed, competition-free substrates. Natural disturbances, like floods that expose mineral soil, are essential. Recruitment success is governed by interactions between seed dispersal, water level recession, and proximity to groundwater [167,168,169,170,171].

Tree breeding and clonal selection improve productivity and site suitability for willow and poplar used in biomass production. In Canada, these programs target consistency in wood quality, energy content, and chemical composition [172].

In the Danube zone, willows habitats naturally occur in the lowest part of meadows, with the shrubby species being pioneers on the sandy deposits emerging from the water and the arborescent species dominating the soils 15–25 cm deep (to the groundwater), with deeper-soil poplars being more productive [33]. The best sites are cultivated with select genotypes (clones) of S. alba and hybrids (S. fragilis x S. matsudana) [173].

Weed control is essential for establishing SRC willow. In boreal Hokkaido, Japan, mulching was tested as an alternative to herbicides. It reduced competition and improved biomass production, especially when combined with first-year shoot cutback [102].

Willow production is closely related to the soil water regime, with irrigation being essential in SRC cultures [174]. Being an intensive culture, fertilization is part of the good practices [35,175,176].

Many pests and diseases need control, and thus the preventive treatments in nurseries and SRCs become part of the complex tending operations of willow cultures [177,178,179].

In forests, the aggressive defoliators are subject to control during outbreaks [33,180]. Some bacteria cause significant economic and ecological losses to the willow stands, especially in dry seasons [181].

A nine-year study demonstrated that intensive SRC willow cultivation did not significantly impact groundwater nitrogen levels, supporting its environmental viability in terms of nutrient leaching [108].

In North America, imported willow cuttings are used to establish SRIC plantations for bioenergy, bioproducts, and phytoremediation. Profiling the microbial communities of cuttings is critical for disease prevention and successful stand establishment [182].

New harvesting technologies like the biobaler allow efficient cutting and baling of woody crops such as willow, including wild brush and forest understory vegetation, supporting flexible biomass production and land management applications [183].

4. Discussion

4.1. A Systematic and Bibliometric Synthesis of Global Research

As in other bibliometric studies [184,185,186], articles represented about 90% of the total publications related to this topic. However, proceedings and book chapters were also recorded, though there was a low number of reviews. (Only eight reviews on the use of this extremely large group of species is far too few). A similarity with other studied topics was also found in the temporal evolution of publications, namely a timid beginning between 1980 and 2000, followed by a sharp increase, especially after 2010, due to the increasing accessibility of databases and the growing number of researchers or specialized scientific journals.

The journals in which the analyzed articles were published are mostly affiliated with the fields of ecology and environmental protection (e.g., Restoration Ecology, Forest Ecology and Management, Ecological Engineering, Ecological Modelling, and Biodiversity and Conservation), but also include journals focused on wetland areas (River Research and Applications and Wetlands).

Regarding the countries of origin of the authors of these articles, we can observe that the dominant countries were those with large land areas, including riparian zones where willows are predominant (USA, China, and Canada), as well as countries that have developed short-rotation forestry biomass production systems in recent decades (with Sweden being at the forefront in this regard).

An interesting aspect revealed by our bibliometric study is the evolution over time of the keywords predominantly used in published articles, specifically from the early use of keywords specific to the study area to a more pronounced use in the last decade of keywords related to climate change and the restoration of biodiversity and habitats.

4.2. Willow Species Cited in Forest Management Research

The diversity of willow species identified in forest management research reflects the ecological plasticity and wide application potential of the Salix genus. Beyond their taxonomic breadth, the studies demonstrated how different species fulfill distinct ecosystem functions, ranging from soil stabilization to phytoremediation and biomass production.

Patterns in species selection often correlate with ecological zones and management goals. For example, S. alba and S. purpurea are prominent in temperate Europe due to their high growth rates and riparian dominance, while North American studies favor S. exigua and S. amygdaloides for restoration in dynamic floodplain systems.

A noticeable trend is the increasing focus on hybrid species, especially for bioenergy and pollution mitigation. These hybrids offer improved tolerance to stressors and consistent yields, making them ideal candidates for short-rotation systems. Simultaneously, research into lesser-known and endemic species, although limited, enriches our understanding of regional adaptability and niche specialization.

Collectively, these studies underscore the need to tailor management approaches to species-specific traits and site conditions, emphasizing the value of a functional trait-based framework in future Salix research.

4.3. Issues Addressed in Published Articles Concerning Willow Forest Management

The analysis of the literature on willow forest management revealed a broad spectrum of research interests, indicating the ecological, silvicultural, and economic importance of this forest type. The studies span multiple continents and reflect a growing interest in optimizing willow ecosystems for multifunctional purposes, including biomass production, biodiversity conservation, climate mitigation, and ecosystem services.

4.3.1. Geographical Distribution of Research

The reviewed articles cover studies from Europe, Asia, North and South America, and Oceania, with notable concentrations in Sweden, the USA, and Germany. This suggests strong research traditions in temperate climate regions where willows are commonly used in forestry and agroforestry. Countries such as Sweden (three articles) and the USA (three articles) stood out, potentially due to long-term willow breeding programs and bioenergy strategies.

4.3.2. Main Research Themes

The dominant themes can be grouped into five categories.

Climate and soil interactions: Studies such as those by Albanito et al. (2016) [111] and Ji et al. (2020) [127] examined carbon storage and soil chemical dynamics, revealing the role of willows in climate mitigation.

Biodiversity and ecosystem services: Many articles [120,124] focused on biodiversity, including bird densities, insect foraging, and fungal diversity, highlighting the ecological benefits of willow stands.

Forest health and disturbance: Fire impacts [114,126], pest interactions [187], and mycorrhizal relationships [122] emphasize the need for resilience strategies in willow forest management.

Productivity and bioenergy: Articles such as those Hytönen and Kaunisto (1999) [113] and Krasnov and Ragulina (2021) [130] discuss growth enhancement techniques and the energetic potential of short-rotation coppices.

Technology and operations: Emerging technologies like drones [117] (Karl et al., 2020) and operational planning tools [123] are beginning to shape modern management practices.

4.3.3. Emerging Research Directions

The presence of recent studies [119,126] suggests increasing attention toward topics like post-disturbance dynamics, mammal browsing patterns, and the integration of precision forestry tools. Notably, the use of unmanned aerial systems [117] and operational decision models [123] reflects a trend toward digital forest management. One example is the integration of remote sensing technologies, which has significantly advanced precision forestry by enabling accurate biomass estimation and health monitoring in willow stands.

The thematic breadth of willow forest research reflects growing recognition of their multifunctionality in modern landscape management. Notably, there is a shift from singular objectives, such as biomass yield, to integrated goals encompassing biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and resilience to disturbances.

The frequent overlap between productivity, ecological services, and climate functions suggests an opportunity to enhance synergies rather than trade-offs. For instance, plantations managed for bioenergy may also serve as refugia for biodiversity or contribute to watershed stability, depending on how they are designed and maintained.

An emerging emphasis on disturbance ecology—especially in the context of fire, pests, and climate variability—indicates that resilience is becoming a central concern. Technological innovation, particularly remote sensing and modeling tools, is helping address these complex challenges by improving monitoring and decision-making capacity.

However, gaps remain, especially in long-term monitoring, underrepresented geographic regions, and adaptive management practices that link empirical findings to policy and stakeholder engagement.

4.4. Biomass Production of Willow Short-Rotation Forests and Management Actions Concerning Willow

Carbon stock assessment in willow stands must consider both the aboveground biomass [188,189,190,191] and soil organic carbon (SOC) [192,193], as both components contribute significantly to long-term carbon sequestration. Willows are particularly notable for their carbon storage potential due to their fast growth rates and the physiological traits associated with short-rotation coppice (SRC) systems. At the end of the last century, European Union (EU) energy policies promoted the establishment of dedicated short-rotation forestry (SRF) plantations for renewable energy production.

The data from Central Italy indicate that while willow plantations stored less total carbon (23.02 MgC ha⁻¹) than hybrid poplar or black locust plantations, a high proportion of this stock was retained in the living biomass (77.6%). This underlines willow’s efficiency in rapidly accumulating organic carbon, even in unmanaged conditions. In contrast, black locust exhibited the highest C-stock overall but with minimal deadwood contribution, suggesting species-specific differences in carbon distribution patterns [142].

Although willow SRC systems were initially recognized for their potential to enhance soil carbon through litterfall, root turnover, and minimal soil disturbance [136,194], field evidence remains inconsistent. Some research documented increases in SOC following conversion from cropland, while other studies suggest potential losses or no change at all [139,140,141]. These discrepancies may be due to site-specific factors, the duration of cultivation, previous land use, or methodological variations.

The findings of Dincă et al. (2015) [195] offer important insight. SOC dynamics in willow plantations affect deeper soil layers (up to 100 cm), and thus assessments that consider only the topsoil (0–30 cm) may underestimate the total SOC changes. Moreover, SOC accumulation appears to plateau at about 20 years after conversion, aligning with the management timeline of many SRF systems.

As willow cultivation is increasingly integrated into multifunctional landscapes—ranging from energy production to ecological restoration—the associated management complexity rises. For instance, in regions where Salix species are non-native, their rapid spread can disrupt local ecosystems, illustrating the need for geographic and genetic specificity in planning. Simultaneously, while willows show promise in carbon sequestration, particularly in biomass, long-term soil carbon dynamics remain insufficiently understood, complicating life cycle assessments and climate mitigation claims. These concerns underscore the need for coordinated, adaptive management strategies grounded in both ecological understanding and site-specific monitoring

In conclusion, willow stands and SRC systems represent an effective carbon sequestration strategy, particularly in their biomass components. However, their role in long-term soil carbon accumulation remains complex and site-dependent. Further long-term and multi-depth studies are essential to clarify SOC trajectories and optimize management practices for carbon-focused forestry.

Biomass production in willow short-rotation systems offers notable ecological and economic advantages, especially in temperate zones with marginal agricultural land. The consistent results from multiple studies underscore the role of Salix spp. in diversifying land use while delivering renewable energy with favorable greenhouse gas (GHG) emission profiles [147,148,149].

The energetic and sustainability benefits of SRC systems are considerable. According to Djomo et al., SRCs can yield 14–86 times more energy than coal per unit of fossil input and emit 9–161 times less GHGs. Such findings suggest that these systems could substantially contribute to EU climate targets, especially under frameworks like the Renewable Energy Directive (RED). Incorporating SRCs into national and regional land use strategies is therefore essential for low-carbon energy transitions.

However, the success of willow SRCs depends heavily on tailored biomass estimation procedures. These must account for diverse objectives, ranging from commercial harvest optimization to scientific analysis of tree physiology. Estimation methodologies vary by sampling strategy, model structure, and data conversion techniques [196]. In practice, trade-offs must be made between speed, accuracy, and biological representativeness.

Furthermore, while maritime pine shows high calorific value, poplar and willow offer faster rotations and more favorable ash and elemental compositions for combustion [151]. This highlights the need for species-specific management to optimize energy output while minimizing environmental impacts.

In conclusion, willow SRC systems are a viable and sustainable component of modern forestry and energy strategies. To fully realize their potential, emphasis must be placed on refining estimation methods, integrating these crops into agroforestry systems, and ensuring that policy frameworks support long-term deployment.

The review reveals that willow stands are subject to an expanding range of management applications, from energy production and ecological restoration to erosion control and biodiversity enhancement. Their ecological plasticity, fast growth, and high biomass yields make willows particularly suitable for short-rotation forestry (SRF), especially in temperate and boreal zones.

In Central and Northern Europe, willow clones are key to SRC systems due to their genotypic variability in resilience, growth, and resistance to biotic stressors [194]. This variability is both a challenge and an opportunity; it necessitates site-specific clone selection yet allows tailored management for biomass and conservation outcomes.

Riparian and estuarine restoration presents another frontier for willow management. The use of autochthonous Salix in tidal floodplain reforestation, particularly in Natura 2000 sites, aligns with the European Habitats Directive. Restoration success depends on combining ecological hydrology (i.e., restoring natural flooding and sedimentation regimes) with planting adapted willow genotypes [197]. These practices improve shoreline stability and habitat complexity, contributing to wider ecosystem services such as wave attenuation and nutrient cycling.

The ecological duality of willows—as both key restoration agents and invasive threats—highlights the importance of geographic context in management planning. In the Northern Hemisphere, willows support regeneration and productivity, while in the Southern Hemisphere, invasive Salix species threaten native biodiversity and stream function, necessitating targeted removal strategies [164]. Several Salix species have demonstrated invasive tendencies in various parts of the world, raising management and conservation concerns. Salix fragilis (crack willow), for example, is widely recognized as invasive in North American riparian zones [165] and has also spread aggressively along rivers in Chilean Patagonia [166] and throughout Australian inland waterways [167]. Its capacity for vegetative reproduction and rapid growth enables it to colonize disturbed streambeds rapidly, often forming dense monocultures that suppress native vegetation and shade entire stream reaches during summer. Similarly, Salix babylonica is considered the most widespread woody riverine invader in the grasslands of South Africa, while Salix cinerea, a dioecious Eurasian shrub, has invaded Australia’s alpine and subalpine regions, ecosystems that are typically resilient to woody weed establishment [168]. These cases illustrate how certain Salix species, when introduced outside their native range, can significantly alter riparian ecosystem dynamics. In terms of biomass production, large-scale deployment of SRC willow on marginal or abandoned lands contributes to climate mitigation goals by supplying renewable energy sources with a limited impact on food production. However, this must be coupled with environmentally sound practices, such as avoiding herbicides, maintaining habitat heterogeneity, and ensuring nutrient and water use efficiency [102,108,157].

Notably, active interventions such as planting and land reshaping dominate Salicaceae restoration efforts [169]. But successful natural regeneration, which maintains genetic diversity, requires the reintroduction of disturbance regimes that create bare substrates and facilitate seedling establishment [169,172].

Innovative harvesting and propagation technologies, such as biobalers and pathogen-free cuttings, expand the scope of willow use in forestry and agroforestry [180,181]. Simultaneously, breeding programs continue to refine willow clones for biomass energy, balancing productivity with resilience and ecological integrity [170].

Actions Concerning Landscape and Land Use Change

Land use change for establishing short-rotation willow stands represents a strategic response to both climate mitigation and sustainable land management goals. Marginal, degraded, or abandoned agricultural lands are increasingly being repurposed for the cultivation of Salix species in short-rotation coppice (SRC) systems, offering the dual benefits of biomass production and environmental restoration. This transition not only reduces land pressure on primary forests but also enhances carbon sequestration, nutrient retention, and habitat diversity in intensively used landscapes. Within the framework of sustainable forest landscape management, such afforestation efforts contribute to landscape-level multifunctionality by integrating ecological, economic, and social functions. When managed with biodiversity-friendly practices—such as clone diversity, staggered harvest cycles, and minimal chemical input—willow SRC plantations align with the principles of SFLM by enhancing ecosystem resilience, supporting native flora and fauna, and mitigating climate-related risks. Therefore, willow-based systems exemplify a land use transition that supports long-term ecosystem service delivery and the restoration of forest landscape integrity [198,199].

In conclusion, sustainable management of willow stands requires integrating silvicultural practices with ecological restoration, species-specific considerations, and site-specific constraints. The multifunctional role of willows—as bioenergy crops, erosion buffers, invasive species, and biodiversity providers—positions them uniquely within future land use and climate adaptation strategies.

Despite the growing body of works on willow forest management, several research gaps remain that warrant further investigation to support sustainable practices and maximize ecosystem service delivery. (1) Biodiversity outcomes of management practices: There is a need for targeted research on how specific silvicultural practices (e.g., rotation length, clone selection, harvest frequency) influence biodiversity, particularly for understudied taxa such as soil microbiota, invertebrates, and amphibians. (2) Climate change adaptation and resilience: Investigations should assess the resilience of willow-dominated landscapes to climate extremes (e.g., drought and flooding) and identify adaptive management strategies, such as the use of climate-resilient genotypes or mixed-species plantations. (3) Socioeconomic and policy integration: Future research should integrate socioeconomic dimensions, evaluating the economic viability, social acceptance, and policy incentives of willow-based land uses, especially on marginal or abandoned agricultural lands. (4) Invasive potential and biosecurity risks: Given the invasive tendencies of some Salix species in non-native environments, further studies are needed to evaluate their ecological risks and develop biosecurity guidelines that balance productivity with conservation. (5) Role in ecological restoration: Willow species play a key role in riparian and degraded landscape restoration. Further experimental studies are needed to optimize restoration techniques, assess genetic diversity in replanting material, and evaluate functional outcomes over time. (6) Technological innovations and precision forestry: Finally, the application of remote sensing, drone technology, and AI-driven decision support systems in willow forest monitoring and management remains limited and should be expanded to improve efficiency and data accuracy.

5. Conclusions

The present study analyzed the scientific literature on the topic of sustainably managing willow stands. Our bibliometric analysis showed a growing number of articles and studies, especially during the last two decades, that reflect both ecological as well as economic interest in willow ecosystems. On the other hand, the traditional literature review allowed us to highlight the large number of Salix species, as well as their utility in carbon storage, biomass production, riparian restoration, and ecological resilience.

We can group our main conclusions into the following categories:

• Diversity and versatility

We saw that a large number of willow species are used in different global contexts. This aspect validates these species’ ecological versatility and role in resilience and restoration practices.

2.

Ecosystem services

As we have seen, willow stands are essential for ecosystem functions such as carbon sequestration, water retention, erosion control, and biodiversity support.

3.

Management practices

In order to optimize productivity and ecological outcomes, willow stands sustained short-rotation coppicing, clone selection, and integrated silvicultural techniques. However, each practice must be balanced with the specific context of each site.

4.

Restoration and bioenergy potential

As we have seen, willow species are already used in the rehabilitation of degraded lands and in generating renewable energy, especially in temperate areas.

5.

Emerging challenges

However, we also identified a series of future challenges, such as the effect of invasive species, long-term soil carbon storage, and biodiversity sensitivities.

Future studies should continue to analyze the dynamics of willow stands, especially in the context of climate change, technological innovations, and the socioeconomic context. We must remember that willow stands are essential in the transition toward more sustainable land usage, as well as in the new climate-adaptive forestry approach.

This review analyzed the global scientific literature on the sustainable management of willow (Salix spp.) stands, combining both bibliometric analysis and traditional review methods. The steady increase in research output over the last two decades reflects the growing ecological and economic relevance of willow ecosystems, particularly in the context of climate change, land restoration, and bioenergy transitions.

Our findings can be grouped into five key conclusions:

• Diversity and adaptability

Willows are ecologically versatile and globally distributed, with over 40 species cited across a range of biogeographic and functional contexts. This diversity underscores their adaptability to various site conditions and management objectives.

2.

Ecosystem services and multifunctionality

Willow stands provide essential services, including carbon sequestration, erosion control, water purification, and habitat provisioning. Their integration into riparian zones, marginal farmland, and degraded lands enhances both ecological resilience and landscape-level sustainability.

3.

Management practices and productivity

Short-rotation coppicing (SRC), careful clone selection, and minimal-input systems are key to optimizing biomass yields and ecosystem benefits. However, these practices must be site-specific and consider long-term impacts on biodiversity and soil processes.

6. Emerging Challenges

The multifunctional expansion of willow systems brings with it new challenges, most notably the invasive potential of some Salix species in non-native regions, and knowledge gaps concerning long-term soil carbon dynamics. These issues are particularly important when scaling up willow cultivation for climate mitigation or land restoration and must be addressed through proactive research and adaptive management.

1.

Policy Guidance and Research Priorities

This study reviewed the scientific literature on the sustainable management of willow stands, combining both bibliometric and traditional review approaches. The bibliometric analysis indicated a steady increase in academic interest over the past two decades, reflecting growing ecological and economic attention to willow ecosystems. In parallel, the literature review highlighted the remarkable diversity of Salix species and their valuable roles in carbon storage, biomass production, riparian restoration, and ecological resilience. Our findings emphasize the ecological versatility of willow species, which are employed across a wide range of geographical and environmental contexts. This adaptability underlines their importance of supporting resilience and restoration efforts, particularly in degraded or sensitive landscapes. Willow stands provide vital ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, water retention, erosion control, and the enhancement of biodiversity. These functions make them critical components of sustainable land management and climate adaptation strategies.

We found that effective management practices—such as short-rotation coppicing, careful clone selection, and integrated silvicultural techniques—can significantly enhance both productivity and ecological outcomes. Nonetheless, these practices must be adapted to the specific characteristics of each site to ensure long-term sustainability. Our research also points to the promising role of willow species in land rehabilitation and renewable bioenergy production, especially in temperate regions where such efforts are already well underway.

Despite these benefits, several emerging challenges remain. These include managing the impacts of invasive species, understanding the long-term dynamics of soil carbon storage, and addressing sensitivities related to biodiversity conservation. Future research should continue to explore the ecological and socioeconomic dynamics of willow forest systems, especially in light of climate change and technological innovation. As this review suggests, willow stands hold significant potential for supporting the global transition toward more sustainable, climate-resilient land use and forestry practices.