Risk Assessment and Management of Potential Invasive Alien Species: A Study on Cenchrus purpureus in the Gaoligong Mountains

Abstract

This study investigated Cenchrus purpureus in the southern part of the Gaoligong Mountains and quantified its invasion risk using an integrated approach. We combined the Drivers–Pressures–State–Impacts–Responses (DPSIR) model, Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), and Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). We adopted non-random sampling techniques to conduct a survey on the cognition, hazards, utilization and management of C. purpureus among 402 respondents from 25 villages. Our results classify C. purpureus as a medium-risk species (Level II). We identified a central socio-ecological dilemma: while 36.1% of communities use it for fodder, 54% report that it causes soil degradation, signaling potential long-term agricultural losses. SEM analysis confirmed that the willingness to manage the invasion is directly influenced by these usage patterns and risk perceptions. The traditional ecological knowledge of Cenchrus purpureus was highly consistent with scientific assessment, validating its use as an early warning indicator. Therefore, our study validates a multidisciplinary framework that integrates models (DPSIR, AHP, SEM) with traditional knowledge for a holistic assessment of C. purpureus invasion. This approach offers a replicable strategy for ecosystem management in global biodiversity hotspots in the mountainous regions.

1. Introduction

Invasive alien species threaten global biodiversity, ecosystem stability, and socio-economic systems, with anthropogenic introductions responsible for approximately 37% of documented ecological disruptions [1,2]. Cenchrus purpureus (Schumach.) Morrone (syn. Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.), commonly referred to as elephant grass, exemplifies this complex dynamic. Originally introduced across tropical and subtropical regions—including large parts of Asia and Africa—for its value as fodder, bioenergy feedstock, and soil erosion control, the species has exhibited robust invasive behavior in non-native habitats [3,4]. This species exemplifies a duality: while valued as fodder, its invasive potential risks long-term ecological harm. Its rapid growth and vigorous rhizomatous spread enable it to outcompete native flora, degrade land and increase fire risk [5,6].

Internationally, several structured protocols have been developed to assess the invasion risks posed by such species. The Weed Risk Assessment (WRA) system, widely applied in Australia, New Zealand, and beyond, uses a standardized scoring approach based on ecological, reproductive, and dispersal-related traits [7]. Similarly, the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) employs a rigorous pest risk analysis scheme, which has been adopted for numerous quarantine species across Europe [8]. However, these systems often overlook socio-ecological factors such as local perception and traditional knowledge, which are essential for designing culturally appropriate management strategies [9].

To address this gap, we integrate the DPSIR (Drivers–Pressures–State–Impacts–Responses) framework with the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The DPSIR framework, developed by the European Environment Agency, enables a systems-level analysis of environmental issues by linking socio-economic drivers to ecological outcomes [10]. When coupled with AHP—a multi-criteria decision-making method developed by Saaty that uses pairwise comparisons to derive weighted priorities—this approach allows for a transparent and quantifiable integration of both ecological and social risk factors [11]. To further elucidate the complex relationships between social variables and local perceptions, we employ Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)—a multivariate statistical technique that enables researchers to test and estimate complex networks of causal relationships among observed and latent variables [12]. SEM overcomes limitations of traditional regression by simultaneously testing multiple pathways involving both observed and latent variables. We applied SEM to test how safety perception, usage patterns, perceived harm, removal intention, species knowledge, and demographics collectively shape local attitudes toward C. purpureus, revealing how socio-cultural factors mediate risk perception [13].

Cenchrus purpureus, a forage grass of global importance, has been introduced beyond its native range to many regions, including southern China. This study investigates its ecological profile in the specific context of the Gaoligong Mountains (Gaoligongshan) in Yunnan, China—a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and world biodiversity hotspot within the Eastern Himalayas known for exceptional species richness and endemism [14]. Evaluating its potential impact in this conservation-sensitive area is the primary objective of this work. However, increasing anthropogenic pressure and climate change have rendered its ecosystems vulnerable to invasions. While C. purpureus has been studied extensively in agronomic contexts—such as silage technology and variety performance—few studies have quantified its impact on the Gaoligong Mountains ecosystem or documented local community views on its use, control, and traditional ecological knowledge [15,16].

To bridge this gap, our study employs a DPSIR-AHP combined framework. There-fore, this paper employs the DPSIR-AHP framework to quantitatively analyze the ecological impact and invasion risk of Cenchrus purpureus in the southern part of the Gaoligong Mountains. Simultaneously, structural equation modeling is used to examine the complex relationships among safety perception, usage patterns, perceived harm, removal intent and demographic factors. We collected localized information on the invasion of C. purpureus in the southern part of the Gaoligong Mountains and gathered data addressing the following questions: (1) What are the harms and risks associated with C. purpureus in the local area? (2) Is there a correlation between local perceptions of this species and external human factors such as gender, age, and place of residence? (3) What are the prevention and control measures, and uses of invasive alien species C. purpureus?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The study area is situated in the southern part of the Gaoligongshan (Gaoligong Mountains) in Yunnan Province, Southwest China, covering Tengchong City and part of Longyang District (west bank of Nujiang River) (Figure 1). It spans 24°51′ N–25°37′ N and 98°37′ E–98°53′ E, a biodiversity-rich region within the Hengduan Mountains of southwestern Yunnan, China. The reserve spans a remarkable elevational gradient from 580 m in the river valleys to 4600 m at its highest peak, creating diverse microclimates and habitats [17]. Situated in the collision zone between the Indian and Eurasian plates, the area experiences a subtropical monsoon climate characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons, with mean annual temperatures of 14–17 °C and annual precipitation exceeding 1000 mm [18]. Many linguistic groups inhabit this area, including Han, Bai, Hui, Lisu, Wa, Dai, Yi, and Yi, with the Han being the most populous [19]. The broader area of the Gaoligong Mountains (24°34′–28°22′ N, 97°30′–99°30′ E) forms a critical watershed between the Nujiang (Salween) and Dulong rivers, sustaining exceptional floristic and faunal diversity under increasing climatic and anthropogenic pressures [20].

2.2. Ethnoecological Survey

This research employed methodologies from ethnoecology, including field investigation and participatory survey. Field investigation was conducted during July–August 2023 (peak rainy season) and May–June 2024 (between dry season and early rainy season) in the southern part of the Gaoligong Mountains in Yunnan Province. Surveys spanned both rainy and dry seasons to capture seasonal variation. We systematically surveyed traditional ecological knowledge regarding biological invasions across 25 villages located near these protection stations while adhering to proximity principles (Figure 2). We collaborated with local governments, who facilitated introductions to local guides for effective communication with interviewees [21]. We provided plant parts (leaves or stems) or fresh samples for participants’ examination and commentary. Species identification was achieved through field observation complemented by discussions with local people. Based on morphological characteristics and geographical origins, the identity of the investigated species was determined using existing taxonomic and database systems. The electronic classification databases we used include “Flora of China”. Samples of C. purpureus were collected and preserved in the herbarium of the School of Life and Environmental Sciences at Minzu University of China. The guides translated our questions into the Yunnan dialect and relayed responses back to us. With local assistance, interviews were conducted in Mandarin or Yunnan dialect, and data were collected via questionnaires and focus group discussions. Responses to closed-ended questions were analyzed mathematically and quantitatively using Excel. The questionnaire aimed to assess public and stakeholder perceptions of the invasion and impacts of the invasive alien species C. purpureus.

We employed non-random sampling techniques, notably snowball sampling, to recruit respondents. Semi-structured interviews were conducted based on a pre-designed questionnaire, which covered several topics, including general knowledge of invasive alien species. Prior to the interviews, informed consent was obtained from all participants, and approval was granted by the local government, its staff, as well as local guides [22]. A total of 402 informants were interviewed, comprising 221 males and 181 females (

Table 1. Demographic characteristics and profile classes of respondents.

Characteristics	Categories	Nr.	%
Gender	Male	221	55.0
	Female	181	45.0
Age	8–20 years old	54	13.0
	20–40 years old	151	37.0
	40–60 years old	155	39.0
	60–88 years old	42	11.0
Nationalities	Han	228	56.7
	Lisu	68	17.0
	Hui	52	13.0
	Bai	8	2.0
	Dai	17	4.2
	Wa	7	1.7
	De’ang	1	0.2
	Yi	12	3.0
	Miao	8	2.0
	Pumi	1	0.2
Profile class	Students	37	9.2
	Teachers	46	11.4
	Scientists/Researchers	43	10.7
	Farmers	209	52.0
	Business	14	3.5
	Doctors	20	5.0
	Others	33	8.2
Habitation	Tengchong City, Yunnan Province	164	41.0
	Longyang District, Yunnan Province	238	59.0

). While this method was pragmatically chosen for its effectiveness in accessing hard-to-reach populations, we acknowledge that it may lead to an over-representation of individuals within close-knit social networks and an under-representation of isolated stakeholders. To mitigate potential sampling bias, we conducted a post hoc comparison of our sample’s demographic structure (including gender, age, nationality and occupation) against regional census data. The results (

Table A1. Comparison of demographic characteristics before and after sample weighting.

Characteristic	Class	Proportion of Original Samples (%)	Weighted Proportion (%)	Regional Reference Ratio (%)
Sex	Male	55.0%	52.1%	51.8%
	Female	45.0%	47.9%	48.2%
Age	20~40 years old	37.0%	35.2%	34.5%
Nationalities	Han	56.7%	58.2%	57.5%
Profile class	Farmers	52.0%	54.3%	55.1%

Note: The regional reference ratio is derived from the 2023 population census data of the local statistics bureau.

) show that the weighted proportions of our sample are highly consistent with regional reference ratios, indicating that we partially balanced demographic disparities through statistical adjustment, indicating that we partially balanced demographic disparities through statistical adjustment.

The questionnaire was divided into three parts. The first part gathered basic demographic information, such as gender, age, occupation, and residential address. The second part concerned local people’s awareness of C. purpureus, including whether they had heard of this invasive alien species, when it was introduced, and the damage it caused to the local area. The third part discussed how local residents use invasive alien species, and the methods they adopt for removal (

Table A2. Interview information about Cenchrus purpureus.

NO	Questions	Answers	%
1	Have you ever heard of C. purpureus?	I’ve heard of it.	53%
		I haven’t heard of it.	47%
2	Have you ever seen C. purpureus?	I’ve seen it.	35%
		I haven’t seen it.	65%
3	Where have you seen C. purpureus?	Field edge	42%
		Ditch side	36%
		Unclear	22%
4	Do you know the basics of C. purpureus?	I have no idea	28%
		I know a litter about it	41%
		General understanding	26%
		Good understanding	3%
		Know very well	2%
5	Is this plant an invasive alien species?	I know	33%
		Unclear	67%
6	When was C. purpureus introduced?	Unclear	32%
		Ten years ago	48%
		It’s been around for a long time	20%
7	Is C. purpureus useful?	Unclear	28%
		No, it is useless	29%
		Yes, it is	43%
8	How to use C. purpureus?	I don’t know to use it	44%
		It is used as feed	56%
9	Does C. purpureus have an effect on life?	It has an impact	48%
		It has no effect	25%
		Unclear	27%
10	Is it safe to introduce C. purpureus?	I couldn’t disagree more	34%
		I disagree	26%
		I generally agree	18%
		I prefer to agree	13%
		I couldn’t agree more	9%
11	Have you ever used C. purpureus?	I have used it	36%
		I have never used it	64%
12	How often do you use C. purpureus?	I never use it	20%
		I rarely use it	54%
		I use it only sometimes	16%
		I use it a lot	10%
13	Should C. purpureus be removed?	It should not be removed	25%
		It should be removed	54%
		Unclear	21%
14	How to clean C. purpureus?	Pulling	33%
		Cutting	21%
		Using chemical herbicides	46%
15	What are the dangers of C. purpureus?	Change water resources	10%
		Damage to land	54%
		Cause imbalances in plant and animal populations	10%
		Others	13%
		Unclear	13%
16	What are the prospects for C. purpureus?	It has no prospect	22%
		Unclear	32%
		It has better prospects	22%
		The prospects are moderate	24%

). Prior to the survey questions, respondents agreed to participate in this study, and it was stated that all the data were anonymous.

Among the respondents in the survey area, there was only one person from each of the De’ang and Pumi ethnic groups. This is because the settlement areas of these two ethnic groups are in the south and the north of the region, respectively. However, there are indeed some De’ang and Pumi people living in the southern part of the Gaoligong Mountains.

2.3. Model Specification

2.3.1. SEM Model

The measurement model defines how six latent variables (ξ and η) are reflected by their corresponding observed indicators (x and y, respectively).

Exogenous latent variables are JC = ξ₁ and RQ = ξ₂. Endogenous latent variables are AQ = η₁, SY = η_2, WH = η₃ and QC = η₄ (

Table 2. Questionnaire design.

Latent Variable	Observation Variable Meaning	Symbol
Interviewee basic information (JC)	Occupation	zy
	Sex	xb
Basic information about invasive alien species (RQ)	Is the plant an invasive alien species?	rq
Safety of invasive alien species (AQ)	Are invasive alien species safe?	aq
Availability of invasive alien species (SY)	Have you used P. purpureum? How often do you use P. purpureum?	sy1; sy2
The harm of invasive alien species (WH)	Is P. purpureum harmful?	wh
Removal invasive alien species (QC)	Should C. purpureus be removed?	qc

and Figure 3).

The SEM model equation is as follows:

$$\left\{\begin{array}{c}xb={\lambda }_{xb}·{\xi }_1+{\delta }_{xb};zy={\lambda }_{zy}·{\xi }_1+{\delta }_{zy}\\ rq={\lambda }_{rq}·{\xi }_2+{\delta }_{rq};aq={\lambda }_{aq}·{\eta }_1+{\epsilon }_{sy1}\\ sy1={\lambda }_{sy1}·{\eta }_2+{\epsilon }_{sy1}\\ sy2={\lambda }_{sy2}·{\eta }_2+{\epsilon }_{sy2}\\ wh={\lambda }_{wh}·{\eta }_3+{\epsilon }_{wh}\\ qc={\lambda }_{qc}·{\eta }_4+{\epsilon }_{qc}\end{array} \right.$$

(1)

Among them, λ is the factor loading, δ and ε are the measurement error terms.

The structural model describes the causal relationship paths among latent variables.

$$\left\{\begin{array}{c}{\eta }_1={\gamma }_{11}·{\xi }_1+{\gamma }_{12}·{\xi }_2+{\beta }_{12}·{\eta }_2+{\zeta }_1\\ {\eta }_2={\gamma }_{23}·{\xi }_2+{\zeta }_2\\ {\eta }_3={\gamma }_{31}·{\xi }_1+{\beta }_{32}·{\eta }_2+{\zeta }_3\\ {\eta }_4={\gamma }_{41}·{\xi }_1+{\gamma }_{42}·{\xi }_2{+\beta }_{41}·{\eta }_1+{\beta }_{42}·{\eta }_2+{\beta }_{43}·{\eta }_3+{\zeta }_4\end{array}\right.$$

(2)

γ is the path coefficient of the exogenous latent variable (ξ) relative to the endogenous latent variable (η); β is the path coefficient between the endogenous latent variables (η); ζ is the residual term of the structural equation.

2.3.2. DPSIR-AHP Model

The DPSIR model consists of five dimensions, specified for this study (Figure 4). The comprehensive risk value R of invasive alien species is calculated by the following weighted summation formula:

$$R={\sum }_{i=1}^5{w}_i·S_i$$

(3)

$R$: The comprehensive risk value. $w_i$: The global weight of the i-th DPSIR criterion. $S_i$: The standardized score of the i-th DPSIR criterion.

The score $S_i$ of each DPSIR criterion is composed of the weighted sum of its subordinate indicators:

$$S_i={\sum }_{j=1}^{n_i}{\omega }_{ij}·I_{ij}$$

(4)

$S_i$: The criterion score of the i-th criterion. ${\omega }_{ij}$: The local weight of the j-th indicator under the i-th criterion. $I_{ij}:$ The standardized assignment of the j-th indicator under the i-th criterion. $n_i$: The number of indicators included in the i-th criterion.

The global weight ${\omega }_{ij}$of the indicator is obtained through hierarchical multiplication:

$$W_{ij}={\omega }_i\times {\omega }_{ij}$$

(5)

$W_{ij}$: The global weight of the j-th indicator under the i-th criterion. ${\omega }_i$: The criterion weight of the i-th criterion. ${\omega }_{ij}$: The local weight of the j-th indicator under the i-th criterion.

AHP weight determination method:

(a)

For each level, construct a pairwise comparison matrix

$$A=\left(a_{kl}\right)$$

(6)

where $a_{kl}$ represents the relative importance of the k-th indicator compared to the l-th indicator on the 1–9 scale.

(b)

Calculate the priority vector w from the matrix, for instance, by solving the eigenvalue problem:

$$Aw={\lambda }_{max}w$$

(7)

(c)

Calculate the consistency ratio CR:

$$CI={\displaystyle \frac{{\lambda }_{max}-n}{n-1}}$$

(8)

$$CR={\displaystyle \frac{CI}{RI}}$$

(9)

When CR < 0.10, the consistency test is passed.

The weight assignments for the AHP were determined through a structured expert consultation process. We invited a panel of ten experts with extensive experience in fields directly relevant to this study, including plant ecology, invasive alien species management, agronomy, and biodiversity conservation.

Each expert independently completed the pairwise comparison matrices for the DPSIR criteria and all sub-criteria based on the Saaty 1–9 scale. The consistency ratio (CR) was calculated for each matrix provided by the experts. All individual judgments that passed the consistency check (CR < 0.10) were aggregated using the geometric mean to form the final pairwise comparison matrices, from which the weights were derived.

To test the robustness of the AHP model and the resulting risk classification, a sensitivity analysis was performed. We systematically varied the weights of the three most influential primary indicators (Driving force, Local distribution, and Local impacts) by ±10% and recalculated the comprehensive risk value R for C. purpureus in each scenario. This process assessed the impact of weight uncertainties on the final risk score.

Integrating the above formulas yields the complete DPSIR-AHP risk assessment model:

$$R={\sum }_{i=1}^5{\sum }_{j=1}^{n_i}{W}_{ij}·I_{ij}$$

(10)

The risk level is classified based on the comprehensive risk value R:

$$\mathrm{Risk} \mathrm{level} = \left\{\begin{array}{c}Hight level if R\ge 5; \\ Medium-risk if 3\le R<5\\ Low-risk if R<3\end{array}\right.$$

(11)

2.4. Data Collection and Analysis

During the study, we investigated the traditional ecological knowledge of Cenchrus purpureus invasion using a semi-structured methodology. Surveys were conducted in villagers’ dwellings or through street interviews in Yunnan dialect or Mandarin, with professional translation support. These visits took place during the data gathering phase for C. purpureus, as we interacted with different communities, which also provided additional opportunities to gather relevant socio-cultural dynamics. The open-ended question method was used to explore the emergence, development, and management of C. purpureus. The interview survey included two main questions: (1) Traditional ecological knowledge of C. purpureus invasion process (including environmental changes and plant dispersal). (2) The harm and utilization of C. purpureus.

The study considered respondents’ basic information (e.g., gender and occupation) and their knowledge of invasive alien species (e.g., safety evaluation of invasive alien species C. purpureus). It also examined the use of invasive alien species (e.g., usage frequency of invasive alien species) and respondents’ views on the changes these invasive alien species bring to their daily lives. Statistical analysis was performed using R software v4.4.0 in R Studio v2024.04.0. software, with a significance level of 5% for all tests.

In this study, respondents from villages in Tengchong and Longyang of Baoshan City in the southern part of the Gaoligong Mountains were selected as the subjects, aiming to investigate the ecological cognition of local respondents. Questionnaires were designed to cover the background information (occupation, gender), perceived value and other dimensions of the respondents, as shown in Table 2, and were formatted using a Likert 5-level scale.

The corresponding framework consists of five modules: construction of evaluation indicators, determination of indicator weights, construction of a hazard risk assessment model, model validation, and policy decision-making. A DPSIR framework-based natural disaster risk indicator system is constructed in the first module (Figure 4). The DPSIR framework, with the ability to analyze causal relations of multidimensional complex systems, has been widely applied in environmental assessment. Such a methodology lays an experimental foundation for the management of invasive alien species risk, enables quantitative risk assessment, and assists in the formulation of prevention and mitigation strategies for invasive alien species.

In disaster risk assessment, the selection of evaluation indicators typically depends on four key assessment factors: hazard, exposure, vulnerability, and response capacity. These factors reflect the probability of disaster occurrence, the affected population and assets, the extent of social and economic damage, and the ability of communities and governments to respond to disasters, respectively. The weight of each indicator is calculated through the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to ultimately derive the composite weights for different levels (

Table 3. Risk assessment index system of invasive alien species.

Primary Index	Secondary Index	Connotation and Assignment of Index
1. The driving force of invasive alien species (38)	1.1 Life form (2)	Shrubs (0.5); Subshrub herb (0.5); Herbal vines (0.5); Perennial herbs (0.5); Annual or biennial grass (0)
	1.2 Flowering period (13)	Long flowering period (about 6 months) (10); Middle flowering period (5–6 months) (3); Short flowering period (<5 months) (0)
	1.3 Reproduction mode (12)	Seed propagation and nutrient dissemination (8); Seed propagation (3); Vegetative propagation (1)
	1.4 Seed fertility (3)	Large seeds, easy to germinate (2); The seed quantity is general, easy to sow and germinate (1); The number of seeds is small or does not germinate easily (0)
	1.5 Intrusion method (4)	High probability of intentional introduction (3); Natural diffusion is more likely to be introduced (1)
	1.6 Communication capacity (5)	Seeds can spread naturally over long distances (3); Natural dispersal of seeds in close proximity (2)
2. The adaptability of invasive alien species to plants (13)	2.1 Tolerance to adversity(Resilience to adversity, such as salt, strong winds, drought, barren, waterlogged, etc.) (9)	Adapting to most adversity (4); Adapting to some adversity (3); Unable to adapt to such adversity (2)
	2.2 Climate suitability (2)	Suitable for growth (2); Not suitable for growth (0)
	2.3 Applicability of water and soil environment (2)	Suitable for growth (1); Not suitable for growth (1)
3. Local distribution of invasive alien species (25)	3.1 Abundance distribution (18)	Extremely common (9); General (6); A certain scale of local formation (3); Unshaped (0)
	3.2 Distribution of habitat types (4)	Distributed in 5–6 habitats (2); Distributed in 3–4 habitats (1.5); Distributed in 1–2 habitats, or common in cultivation (0.5)
	3.3 Important values (3)	Importance value > 10 (1.5); 7 ≤ Major value < 10 (1); 4 ≤ Major value < 7 (0.25); 1 ≤ Important value < 4 (0.25); Important values < 1 (0)
4. Local impacts of invasive alien species (14)	4.1 Impacts on native plants (6)	Produce inhibitory effect (6); No inhibition (0)
	4.2 Impacts on agriculture, forestry and fisheries (2)	Have a certain risk (2); No obvious hazards (0)
	4.3 Effects on human and animal health (1)	Have a certain risk (1); No obvious hazards (0)
	4.4 Impact on tourism landscape (5)	Major impact, serious harm (3); There is an effect, but the harm is small (2); No obvious hazards (0)
5. Countermeasures (10)	5.1 Feasibility of prevention (10)	There are no effective preventive measures, only temporary control (4); Effective prevention and treatment measures, short-term effect is obvious, easy to relapse (3); With effective control measures, it can eliminate long-term invasive plants at one time (2); It has medicinal, feed, edible and ornamental value, without taking control measures (1)

). We used the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) to build a risk assessment model system for potential invasive alien species. We used this AHP model to conduct quantitative risk assessments on C. purpureus, which is commonly introduced in China and has distinct biological characteristics and specific introduction purposes.

3. Results

3.1. Cognition of Invasive Alien Species Cenchrus purpureus

3.1.1. Case Studies: Divergent Local Experiences

To ground our analysis in specific local contexts, we present two contrasting cases from Tengchong City that illustrate the spectrum of local experiences with C. purpureus.

The following is a case provided by a male informant (SZG) from Shiti Village, Wuhe Town, Tengchong City.

SZG’s family has been raising cattle for 10 to 20 years. They started growing C. purpureus three years ago. The plant began to grow about one month after fertilization and could be harvested once every 10 days. The plant can grow taller than 2 m and needs to be processed through a grass cutter. The family grows only one type of C. purpureus, which they cut and fertilize regularly. They believe it has no negative impact on the soil. C. purpureus grows wild in the fields and on the mountainsides. Its roots are quite hard and deep, often requiring an excavator to dig them out. If not managed, the plant can become a problem and is difficult to control. The family uses C. purpureus as fodder, which may save on feed costs. A head of cattle consumes at least 22.5 kg of feed per day. C. purpureus can be stored in a hermetic bag for fermentation and used to feed livestock year-round.

The following is a case provided by a male informant (SMF) from Mingjiazhai Daba Village, Qushi Town, Tengchong City.

He reported that C. purpureus is used to feed cattle. They grow two types: one with purple stems (hairless, with both broad and narrow leaves) and the other with green stems (hairy, also with broad and narrow leaves). This plant affects the growth of other crops due to its strong ability to absorb water and fertilizer.

To illustrate local perceptions of the potential invasive alien species C. purpureus, we selected relevant quotes from interviews for reprinting. The initial introduction and dispersal of invasive alien species into new areas, where they establish populations and spread across the landscape, often takes decades or even centuries. After C. purpureus enters a new environment, it usually faces several challenges before gradually establishing a population. The local government promoted the introduction of C. purpureus, and local villagers attempted to protect their land. After several years of cultivating C. purpureus, it was found to cause soil compaction, reduced land fertility, and crop losses.

3.1.2. Synthesis of Community-Wide Perception and Impacts

Beyond individual cases, our survey (n = 402) quantifies the broader community’s cognition and perceptions, revealing a complex and often conflicted understanding.

The introduction timeline of C. purpureus remains unclear to many, with 47.5% of respondents believing it has existed locally for only about ten years (Table A2). This indicates a widespread, though not universal, awareness of its negative effects. Similarly, 47.5% felt it impacted daily life, and 54.0% thought it was harmful to the land (Figure 5). In terms of usage, 63.9% had never used C. purpureus, while 36.1% had used C. purpureus. Among users, 53.7% rarely used it, and 20.6% reported never using it. Regarding removal, 53.5% believed it should be removed, 25.1% disagreed, and 21.4% were unsure. For removal methods, 33% chose pulling, 21% chose cutting, and 46% using chemical herbicides (Table A2).

Perceived negative impacts are multifaceted. Most people shared their views on the changes in their community after plant invasion, and only 13.2% were unsure if C. purpureus caused problems (Table A2). For the majority, the invasive alien species led to scarcity of natural resources and common social–environmental issues, such as reduced soil fertility, water shortages, agricultural losses, increased labor, and impacts on other plants [23,24]. Regarding future prospects of C. purpureus, 32.3% were unclear, 21.4% thought it had no future, 22.1% believed it had good prospects, and 24.2% thought its prospects were average (Figure 5).

Qualitative comments further elucidated this dilemma. Some respondents noted that the plant has no significant impact on the land initially, but after 7–8 years, the seedlings remain unchanged, and the roots are too tough to burn. They must be dug out with an excavator. Its tall growth can also affect other crops.

In summary, community cognition reflects a transition from initial acceptance based on utility toward a growing awareness of its invasive consequences. Respondents noted that C. purpureus impacts the land and the economic, ecological, and cultural sustainability of local communities. The plant’s rapid growth and rhizomatous spread both benefit from and contribute to common agricultural practices. Land preparation disturbances create favorable conditions for its establishment and spread on farmland [25].

3.2. Risk Assessment of Invasive Alien Species C. purpureus

Using the DPSIR conceptual model and Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), we assessed the potential invasion risk of C. purpureus [26]. The selection of indicators and the criteria development considered the ecological adaptation of species, habitat distribution, and landscape impact. To prevent new invasions, early warning systems must be developed to predict the invasiveness of species and rapidly assess their status. Invasive risk assessment evaluates the ecological and socio-economic impacts of invasive alien species, providing information for prioritizing species and regional biosecurity measures [27].

Given the limited research on the potential invasive alien species C. purpureus in the southern part of the Gaoligong Mountains, where most studies focus on flora, vegetation diversity, plant resource evaluation, and functional trait evolution–comprehensive analysis of biological invasion in this region is still lacking. The DPSIR (Driver–Pressure–State–Impact–Response) model is a widely used framework for evaluating environmental systems [28]. It links underlying drivers (e.g., population growth and economic development) to pressures on ecosystems, resulting in changes in ecosystem state, impacts on human activities, and human responses to mitigate these impacts [29].

In this study, we used the DPSIR model to assess the potential invasion risk of C. purpureus in the Gaoligong Mountains. We examined five key aspects: the drivers of invasion, the adaptability of the plant to the local environment, its distribution, its impact on the local area, and local responses to the invasion. This represents the first detailed risk assessment of the species in the region, providing valuable insights for its management.

The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is employed to determine the weight of each index in invasion risk assessment [30]. The importance of each index is compared, and a judgment matrix is constructed. The weights of the system indices are determined through expert evaluation and pass a consistency test. The sum of weight values for the first-level indicators is set to 100 points. The second-level indicators are assigned weight values derived from their corresponding first-level indicators, and the third-level indicators are assigned weights based on their corresponding second-level indicators. Based on these evaluations, the invasion risk levels of invasive alien species are classified.

In this study, a risk assessment system for invasive alien species in the southern part of the Gaoligong Mountains was established (Table 3). In this system, “0” indicates that an index is not applicable or does not play a role. Based on the Appendix A, the risk score R can be categorized into three levels (

Table 4. Risk assessment results of invasive alien species.

Risk Score R	Level
R ≥ 5	i (High-risk invasive alien species)
3 ≤ R < 5	ii (Medium-risk invasive alien species)
R < 3	iii (Low risk invasive alien species)

): R ≥ 5: High-risk invasive alien species; 3 ≤ R < 5: Medium-risk invasive alien species (Type II); R < 3: Low-risk invasive alien species (Type III).

Based on the integrated DPSIR-AHP model, Cenchrus purpureus was assessed with a comprehensive risk score (R) of 4.0, classifying it as a medium-risk invasive alien species (Level II). As shown in Table 3, this species scores relatively high in the “Driving force” aspect, mainly reflected in its perennial herbaceous life form, long flowering period, and the coexistence of seed and vegetative reproduction. In terms of “Adaptability”, C. purpureus demonstrates strong stress resistance and is capable of adapting to various soil and climatic conditions. In terms of “Local distribution”, although its distribution range is relatively wide, its importance value is low and it has not yet formed an absolute dominant population. In terms of “Local impacts”, C. purpureus has certain inhibitory effects on soil structure and native plants, but its impact on agriculture and human health is limited. In terms of “Response measures”, there is currently a lack of long-term and effective prevention and control measures, mainly relying on manual and chemical removal.

The robustness of this medium-risk classification was verified through sensitivity analysis. Systematic variation (±10%) in the weights assigned to the primary indicators confirmed that the risk score remained stable within the medium-risk range (3.7 ≤ R ≤ 4.2), demonstrating that the conclusion is not sensitive to uncertainties in expert-derived weights.

This assessment is consistent with external classifications, aligning with its designation as a medium-risk invasive species in China’s Invasive Alien Species Information System and broader global evaluations. The model’s practical validity was further tested by applying it to two reference species with well-established invasion statuses in the Gaoligong Mountains. The framework correctly identified Ageratina adenophora as a high-risk species (R > 5) and Cosmos bipinnatus as a low-risk species (R < 3). These outcomes confirm the model’s discriminatory power in practical applications. Finally, the conceptual structure and output of our framework are consistent with key national and international standards, including China’s “Technical Specifications for Risk Assessment of Invasive Alien Plants” and the internationally adopted “Weed Risk Assessment Model”.

Although it possesses strong reproductive and adaptive abilities, C. purpureus currently poses only a medium risk because of its confined distribution, sub-catastrophic ecosystem effects, and ongoing utility as animal feed. However, it has the potential to transition to a high-risk species if future climate change and anthropogenic disturbances intensify without control. The detailed evaluation indicators and weight assignments are provided in the Appendix A (

Table A3. Cenchrus purpureus risk assessment primary index.

	A	B	C	D	E	Weight
A	1.0000	2.9533	2.3255	2.6052	2.8414	0.3840
B	0.3399	1.0000	0.5488	0.9124	1.1431	0.1241
C	0.4302	1.8266	1.0000	2.4653	3.0522	0.2525
D	0.3844	1.0966	0.4066	1.0000	1.7622	0.1390
E	0.3522	0.8755	0.3288	0.5688	1.0000	0.1004

Notes: The primary indices are defined as follows: A: The driving force of invasive alien plants; B: The adaptability to the local environment; C: Local distribution; D: The local impact; E: Coping measures.

and

Table A4. Cenchrus purpureus risk assessment secondary index.

	a1	a2	a3	a4	a5	a6	Weight
a1	1	0.1688	0.1688	0.3522	0.2971	0.2644	0.0398
a2	5.9591	1	1.2821	3.3796	3.9393	3.5423	0.3353
a3	5.9663	0.7780	1	4.5415	4.0118	3.3265	0.3205
a4	2.8435	0.2959	0.2202	1	0.6988	0.6045	0.0842
a5	3.3659	0.2538	0.2493	1.4310	1	0.6520	0.0980
a6	3.7828	0.2823	0.3006	1.6544	1.5337	1	0.1223
	b1		b2		b3		Weight
b1	1		3.9957		2.6531		0.6046
b2	0.2503		1		0.4456		0.1335
b3	0.3769		2.2441		1		0.2619

Notes: The secondary indices under each primary category are defined as follows: a1: 1.1 Life forms; a2: 1.2 Flowering period; a3: 1.3 Mode of reproduction; a4: 1.4 Seed fertility; a5. 1.5 Intrusion method; a6: 1.6 Communication skills; b1: 2.1 Stress resistance (adaptability to salinity, strong wind, drought, barren, waterlogging, etc.); b2: 2.2 Climate adaptability; b3: 2.3 Soil and water environment suitability.

).

The SEM incorporated six latent variables, each defined by its corresponding observed indicators measured on a Likert 5-level scale (Table 2). The structural model delineated the causal pathways among the latent variables to test our core hypotheses (Figure 3 and Figure 6 and

Table A5. The main path coefficients of the SEM model and the 95% deviation corrected Boot strap confidence interval.

Path Relationship	Standardized Path Coefficient	95% Deviation Corrected Bootstrap Confidence Interval	Significance	Standard Error	Hypothesis Verification
AQ~RQ	0.11	[−0.20, 0.42]	0.05	0.16	Nonsupport
AQ~JC	−0.07	[−1.03, 0.89]	0.53	0.49	Nonsupport
AQ~SY	−0.28	[−2.22, 1.66]	0.04	0.99	Support
RQ~JC	0.00	[−0.27, 0.27]	0.96	0.14	Nonsupport
SY~RQ	−0.18	[−0.26, −0.10]	0.08	0.04	Support
WH~JC	−0.09	[0.00, 0.95]	0.47	0.53	Nonsupport
WH~SY	−0.05	[−1.25, 1.15]	0.61	0.61	Nonsupport
QC~JC	−0.11	[−0.80, 0.58]	0.43	0.35	Nonsupport
QC~RQ	−0.11	[−0.29, 0.07]	0.09	0.09	Nonsupport
QC~SY	0.47	[−1.00, 1.94]	0.02	0.75	Support
QC~AQ	0.28	[0.20, 0.36]	0.00	0.04	Support
QC~WH	−0.05	[−0.11, 0.01]	0.39	0.03	Nonsupport

). The SEM results, shown with blue and red arrows indicating positive and negative associations, highlight key standardized path coefficients. * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001. p = 0.185; x²/df = 1.345; GFI = 0.990; RMSE = 0.029. The non-significant chi-square test statistic (p = 0.185) further confirms that the hypothesized model structure is consistent with the observed data. The Structural Equation Model (SEM) was used to analyze the basic information, usage, safety, harm, and removal of C. purpureus in the Gaoligong Mountains (Figure 6).

Key hypothesized relationships included: Knowledge of RQ would directly influence AQ. SY would directly influence QC. AQ would directly influence both WH and QC. JC would influence subsequent knowledge, perception, and behavior variables. The key assumption of this model verifies our hypothesis about the “cognitive-use-attitude” chain: the usage status of invasive species (SY) negatively affects the willingness to clear (QC), and safety awareness (AQ) also negatively affects the willingness to clear (QC). At the level of behavioral intention, there are two factors that have a significant direct impact on the intention to clear (QC). Surprisingly, the usage status (SY) showed a significant positive impact on the willingness to clear (QC) (β = 0.47, p < 0.05). AQ has a significant negative impact on the willingness to clear QC (β = 0.28, p < 0.001). At the cognitive formation level, the cognition (RQ) of the invasive attribute of this plant has a marginally significant negative impact on the usage frequency (SY) (β = −0.18, p = 0.08), indicating that residents who understand its invasiveness may reduce its usage. However, the direct path influence of residents’ basic information (JC) and hazard perception (WH) in the model is not significant.

3.3. Control of Invasive Alien Species Cenchrus purpureus

Control of C. purpureus typically involves biological and physical methods, supplemented by chemical controls. Respondents noted that C. purpureus competes with cultivated plants and needs to be removed if livestock are not present, as it can grow rapidly and affect other plants. Local residents reported that clearing C. purpureus increases maintenance costs and degrades soil quality. The most effective removal method is uprooting, which prevents regrowth. Seedlings are harder to remove once established, as their roots absorb significant soil water. Locals use pulling (32.6%), cutting (21.1%), and chemical cleaning (56.3%) to manage C. purpureus (Table A2).

The SEM identified that both usage frequency and perceived safety of the plant shaped residents’ willingness to remove it. Frequent users (such as farmers) have more directly and profoundly felt the powerful reproductive capacity, encroachment and potential threat to the farmland ecosystem in their daily management. This personal “disturbing experience” has instead given rise to a stronger motivation to control and eliminate it. The roots of C. purpureus develop quickly and need to be cleaned up promptly; otherwise, they can regrow in spring. Abandoned farms are often repurposed for other crops, but if C. purpureus is present. The labor-intensive process of removing the tubers and replanting after fallowing was underscored by a villager at the Linjiapu Monitoring Station, who expressed reluctance to continue cultivation due to the detrimental impact of C. purpureus.

4. Discuss

This study confirms Cenchrus purpureus as a medium-risk invasive alien species in the southern Gaoligong Mountains, consistent with China’s official classification. Respondents accurately identified its ecological harms (e.g., soil degradation, water competition), yet removal willingness is related to usage frequency, revealing a perception–action gap. Traditional ecological knowledge aligned with scientific models (DPSIR-AHP), validating community awareness as an invasion early-warning tool. Structural equation modeling further linked risk perception to management behavior. We discuss the risks and management of C. purpureus, including public cognition, risk assessment, traditional value, and control measures for balancing the ecological and socio-economic impacts of this plant.

4.1. Cognition of Invasive Alien Species Cenchrus purpureus

The establishment of the potential invasive alien species C. purpureus can be attributed to its high adaptability and resilience, which have allowed it to thrive in regions like India, Myanmar, Oceania, and the Americas, as well as in Yunnan, China. The reasons for its introduction include environmental conditions in Yunnan that are similar to its native habitat [31]. Historical factors, such as trade, political, and cultural exchanges, unintentionally facilitated its introduction and subsequent adaptation to the local ecology [32]. As a large perennial clumping vegetation, C. purpureus thrives in various habitats, from farmlands to gullies, particularly in areas with high ecosystem disturbance that favor its invasion. In 2023, community leaders described the background of the C. purpureus invasion: local people noted these plants are commonly referred to as C. purpureus, a name that has gained wide acceptance. Native to Africa, C. purpureus was introduced over a decade ago, with large-scale planting beginning approximately four to five years ago.

The cognition and utilization of C. purpureus in the Gaoligong Mountains area evolved through a process of initial encounter and use, followed by intentional introduction and cultivation, leading to its ecological and finally economic utilization. During the period of social and cultural interaction in the Gaoligong Mountains area, the spread of C. purpureus was largely contained through internal flow, remaining at a relatively static and stable level.

At the same time, semi-structured interviews (n = 402) showed that 79% of community residents could accurately identify the negative ecological impact of C. purpureus, aligning with traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) about its competition with native species. Furthermore, Structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed that both frequent use and a perception of safety negatively affected respondents’ willingness to remove C. purpureus. Farmers who frequently use C. purpureus have the most direct and profound experience of its invasiveness in their daily planting, management, and harvesting processes. This personal “disturbing experience” has enabled them to have the clearest understanding of the ecological risks of this grass. Although C. purpureus has short-term feed value, its uncontrolled spread has an irreversible impact on their livelihood land. Therefore, their willingness to clear it stems from the most direct interests.

This study verified the influence mechanism of the “cognitive-use-attitude” pathway on the willingness to clear C. purpureus through SEM. While the key driving pathways were identified, the 95% bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals for some path coefficients were notably wide (Table A5), indicating considerable uncertainty in the effect sizes. There is considerable uncertainty about the effect of the intensity of this relationship, which may be due to sample heterogeneity or unmeasured confounding factors in the model. Methodologically, the snowball sampling technique, though appropriate for accessing the target population, may limit the generalizability of our findings to similar social networks and risks underrepresenting less-connected individuals or those with minority views. Furthermore, the latent variable for “usage status”, operationalized through self-reported frequency on a Likert scale, is potentially subject to subjective measurement bias, which may not fully capture actual usage patterns. Ecologically, unmeasured confounding variables—such as access to alternative fodder or government subsidies for invasive species control—could have moderated the observed relationships.

Consequently, while the directional relationships are supported, the exact strength of these effects requires further verification. Future research should aim to employ stratified random sampling to include a broader array of stakeholder groups. Therefore, although the directional relationship is supported, its exact strength still needs to be verified through larger-sample studies in the future.

4.2. Risk Assessment of Invasive Alien Species Cenchrus purpureus

This study demonstrates the value of an integrated risk assessment framework that combines ecological modeling with Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) to evaluate C. purpureus. Our model quantified the invasion risk as Level II (medium impact), a finding supported by several key results. Firstly, the species demonstrated a clear preference for hydrologically connected regions, consistent with Richardson’s observation that invasive plants favor areas with high resource availability [33]. This ecological preference explains why the Gaoligong Mountains, characterized by human activities and ample water resources, have become a potential invasion region.

By applying the integrated DPSIR-AHP framework, we quantitatively prioritized key drivers of invasion, revealing land use change and community management practices as particularly significant. Our weighting scheme identified the biological traits and local distribution of invasive plants as the most critical risk components. This methodological framework extends the environmental stress assessment paradigm by formally incorporating TEK, which provides crucial validation of model outputs [34]. For instance, local reports of C. purpureus encroachment into farm margins and fallow lands directly corresponded with ecological data showing higher importance values in disturbed habitats.

When compared to global risk assessment systems—such as Australia’s WRA, the WG-WRA, and EPPO protocols—our framework offers distinct advantages for regional application [7,35]. By adapting secondary indicators like “resistance to stress” and “habitat type distribution” to local conditions, we created a more contextually relevant evaluation tool. This place-based flexibility is critical for practical application, as our sensitivity analysis confirms that weighting must be aligned with distinct regional priorities, whether fostering a tourism-based landscape economy or ensuring sustainable agricultural land use [36].

The classification of C. purpureus as a medium-risk species is consistent with both national and global rankings. This assessment is supported by model outputs indicating a slower spread rate and more confined habitat range than high-risk invaders such as Ageratina adenophora [37]. However, climate change projections integrated into our Species Distribution Models suggest potential range expansion under warming scenarios, particularly in mid-elevation zones [38].

Several limitations warrant consideration. Firstly, while TEK provided valuable insights into current distribution and local perceptions, we maintained a clear distinction between these evidence types to avoid circular reasoning. Secondly, the relatively short-term data may not fully capture invasion trajectories, as species present for only 10 years might spread rapidly despite their current limited distribution. Future iterations of this framework would benefit from incorporating longer temporal datasets to strengthen predictive capacity.

4.3. Economic Value of Invasive Alien Species Cenchrus purpureus

Cenchrus purpureus has brought economic value to local communities and has potential for future applications. Originally introduced as a feed plant, it has also become a valuable local natural resource and an important part of the local economy [39]. C. purpureus is an excellent feed and has a high yield. If it is planted and managed properly, one mu of C. purpureus can bring in 5000 yuan (about USD 700). The annual fresh grass production typically ranges from 75 to 150 × 10³ kg/hectare under optimal conditions, with 6 to 8 harvests possible per year. Not only is the yield high, but the utilization period is also long. If cultivated, managed and utilized properly, it can be extended to 7 to 10 years. C. purpureus and the local social culture of the Gaoligong Mountains are closely intertwined. To illustrate traditional ecological knowledge of C. purpureus, we have included relevant quotations from interviews.

The following is a case provided by a male informant (LJD) from Datang Community, Jietou Town, Tengchong City.

Local people have cultivated C. purpureus in the field for 3–4 years. This plant is typically grown in soils with lower fertility. They use C. purpureus to feed locusts, which are then used to feed wasps. Notably, this cultivation practice does not significantly degrade the land.

Two varieties of C. purpureus are cultivated here, which are distinguished by red and green stems. The red-stemmed variety has a higher yield, with a minimum output of 10 kg/m². A head of cattle consumes approximately 50 kg of this forage daily, and the forage is sold at a price of 200 RMB/10³ kg. C. purpureus grows most vigorously during the rainy season. Its productivity is higher in riverside dam areas than on mountain slopes. Annually, 1 m² of land can produce 25–33 kg of C. purpureus. However, without proper management, C. purpureus cultivation can lead to soil quality decline and compaction. Field management mainly involves timely weeding and irrigation during dry periods (Figure 7).

4.4. Preventive Measures

Frequent users of Cenchrus purpureus likely anticipate that if the species becomes uncontrollable. The resultant agricultural losses will far exceed the economic benefits it provides. Therefore, supporting its clearance is a preventive strategy based on economic rationality, aiming to protect more valuable land.

This finding supports the hypothesis put forward by Pretty that “community perception can be used as an early warning indicator of biological invasion”, highlighting the scientific value of cross-scale knowledge integration [40]. Based on the results of the risk assessment, differentiated management is recommended: mechanical clearance combined with native vegetation restoration in Gaoligong Mountains areas (The Theory of Priorities for the Restoration of Invasive Habitats), and the establishment of a monitoring network with community participation [41]. Studies have further highlighted that incorporating TEK into adaptive management frameworks can promote inclusive decision-making, especially in culturally sensitive areas [42,43].

A comprehensive prevention and control system for invasive alien species should be established in the Gaoligong Mountains. Scientific assessment and prediction of the invasive risks of invasive alien species should be enhanced, and introduction plans should be developed [44]. Prevention and control measures for high-risk invasive alien species should be prioritized based on evaluation results. The reintroduction of such species is not recommended, and accidental introductions should be prevented. Detailed assessments, strict prevention and monitoring measures are required before introducing new species. Low-risk invasive alien species can be introduced but require regular monitoring [45]. Methods and measures should be tailored to different habitats. For example, inspection and quarantine efforts should be strengthened to isolate high-risk invasive alien species, and villagers should be encouraged to reduce invasive alien species by developing fertile land [46].

We advocate for a stratified management approach with the following priorities: restricting new cultivation in ecologically sensitive zones, implementing early-detection protocols to monitor spread, and combining mechanical control with local traditional knowledge in established priority zones. This approach balances the species’ current medium-risk classification with its potential for increased threat under changing conditions.

5. Conclusions

This study established an integrated risk assessment framework that synergistically combines the DPSIR model, AHP-weighted analysis, Structural Equation Modeling, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) to evaluate the invasion risk and local perceptions of Cenchrus purpureus in the southern Gaoligong Mountains. Through semi-structured interviews with 402 informants, we quantified community cognition, uncovering linkages between socio-economic factors and invasion management. Our multifaceted approach yielded several key insights: Firstly, the DPSIR-AHP model quantitatively classified C. purpureus as a medium-risk invasive species (Level II). This finding is consistent with national classifications and is primarily attributed to its high adaptive traits, balanced against its current limited distribution and socio-economic utility. Secondly, the SEM analysis empirically validated a “cognitive-use-attitude” pathway, revealing that while local communities accurately perceive the ecological harms of the species, their willingness to manage it is directly and significantly shaped by their frequency of use and perceptions of its safety. This highlights a critical perception–action gap where practical reliance can override ecological awareness. Thirdly, the strong concordance between TEK and scientific model outcomes underscores the value of local knowledge as a cost-effective early-warning indicator and a vital component of inclusive governance.

Synthesizing these model insights, we propose a stratified management strategy. For policymakers and conservation practitioners, we recommend “spatial differentiated interventions” that restrict new cultivation in ecologically sensitive zones, promote community-based monitoring networks leveraging TEK, and integrate mechanical clearance with native vegetation restoration in priority invasion areas. The integrated assessment system developed here is designed for adaptation to other mountainous regions confronting similar bio-invasion challenges. Future efforts should prioritize three goals. Firstly, long-term ecological monitoring to overcome the limitations of static assessments must be established. Secondly, this assessment framework across different ecological and cultural contexts should be validated. Thirdly, policies that foster deeper integration of traditional knowledge with scientific research can be implemented. This study provides a replicable, holistic foundation for understanding and managing the socio-ecological complexities of plant invasions, particularly in global biodiversity hotspots such as the Gaoligong Mountains.