The Built Environment and Children’s Active Commuting to School: A Case Study of San Pedro De Macoris, the Dominican Republic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Study Area
3.2. Methodology
3.3. Data Collection
3.3.1. Site Audit Data: Physical Environment Measurement
3.3.2. Survey Data
3.4. Variables Used in the Mode Choice Model
4. Results
4.1. Descriptive Statistics
4.1.1. Children’s Commuting Mode and Independent Mobility
4.1.2. School Choices and Environment in the Dominican Republic
4.1.3. Children Versus Parents’ View Regarding School Environment
4.2. Regression Results Regarding Perceptions of Walking Environment Mode Choice
5. Discussion and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Road Traffic Injuries. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/road-traffic-injuries (accessed on 25 July 2022).
- Pan American Health Organization. Status of Road Safety in the Region of the Americas; Pan American Health Organization: Washington, DC, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Urgent Action Needed to Combat Leading Killer of Children over Five in Latin America and the Caribbean. Available online: https://www.unicef.org/lac/en/press-releases/urgent-action-needed-combat-leading-killer-children-over-five-latin-america-and (accessed on 25 July 2022).
- WHO Global Status Report on Road Safety 2013: Supporting a Decade of Action. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/78256 (accessed on 25 July 2022).
- Accidentes Figuran Entre Principales Causas de Muerte Infantil. Available online: https://www.elcaribe.com.do/panorama/pais/accidentes-figuran-entre-principales-causas-de-muerte-infantil/ (accessed on 28 July 2022).
- Mortality Caused by Road Traffic Injury (per 100,000 Population)—Latin America & Caribbean|Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.TRAF.P5?locations=ZJ&most_recent_value_desc=true (accessed on 25 July 2022).
- Parque Vehicular. Available online: https://dgii.gov.do/estadisticas/parqueVehicular/Paginas/default.aspx (accessed on 25 July 2022).
- Oviedo Hernandez, D.; Dávila, J.D. Transport, Urban Development and the Peripheral Poor in Colombia—Placing Splintering Urbanism in the Context of Transport Networks. J. Transp. Geogr. 2016, 51, 180–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arellana, J.; Oviedo, D.; Guzman, L.A.; Alvarez, V. Urban Transport Planning and Access Inequalities: A Tale of Two Colombian Cities. Res. Transp. Bus. Manag. 2021, 40, 100554. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arellana, J.; Alvarez, V.; Oviedo, D.; Guzman, L.A. Walk This Way: Pedestrian Accessibility and Equity in Barranquilla and Soledad, Colombia. Res. Transp. Econ. 2021, 86, 101024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Larrañaga, A.M.; Rizzi, L.I.; Arellana, J.; Strambi, O.; Cybis, H.B.B. The Influence of Built Environment and Travel Attitudes on Walking: A Case Study of Porto Alegre, Brazil. Int. J. Sustain. Transp. 2014, 10, 332–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Herrmann-Lunecke, M.G.; Mora, R.; Sagaris, L. Persistence of Walking in Chile: Lessons for Urban Sustainability. Transp. Rev. 2020, 40, 135–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Personal, M.; Archive, R.; Palomares, L.G.; Sánchez Vela, C. Entorno Urbano y Uso de Parques: Estudio Comparativo Entre Dos Barrios Del Área Metropolitana de Monterrey. Políticas Públicas 2014, 2, 59–71. [Google Scholar]
- Latin America and Caribbean: Development News, Research, Data|World Bank. Available online: https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/lac (accessed on 23 August 2022).
- Adriazola-Steil, C.; Ohlund, H.; El-Samra, S.; Targa, F. Investing for Momentum in Active Mobility. In Transport Decarbonization Investment Series; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Perry, C.A. The School as a Factor in Neighborhood Development: By Clarence Arthur Perry. (No. 142); Department of Recreation, Russell Sage Foundation: New York, NY, USA, 1914. [Google Scholar]
- Isaacs, R.R. The Neighborhood Theory: An Analysis of Its Adequacy. Taylor Fr. 1948, 14, 15–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carver, A.; Panter, J.R.; Jones, A.P.; van Sluijs, E.M.F. Independent Mobility on the Journey to School: A Joint Cross-Sectional and Prospective Exploration of Social and Physical Environmental Influences. J. Transp. Health 2014, 1, 25–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zapata-Diomedi, B.; Knibbs, L.D.; Ware, R.S.; Heesch, K.C.; Tainio, M.; Woodcock, J.; Veerman, J.L. A Shift from Motorised Travel to Active Transport: What Are the Potential Health Gains for an Australian City? PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0184799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lindsay, G.; Macmillan, A.; Woodward, A. Moving Urban Trips from Cars to Bicycles: Impact on Health and Emissions. Aust. N. Z. J. Public Health 2011, 35, 54–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Woodcock, J.; Edwards, P.; Tonne, C.; Armstrong, B.G.; Ashiru, O.; Banister, D.; Beevers, S.; Chalabi, Z.; Chowdhury, Z.; Cohen, A.; et al. Public Health Benefits of Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse-Gas Emissions: Urban Land Transport. Lancet 2009, 374, 1930–1943. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grabow, M.L.; Spak, S.N.; Holloway, T.; Brian, S.S.; Mednick, A.C.; Patz, J.A. Air Quality and Exercise-Related Health Benefits from Reduced Car Travel in the Midwestern United States. Environ. Health Perspect. 2012, 120, 68–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Heelan, K.A.; Donnelly, J.E.; Jacobsen, D.J.; Mayo, M.S.; Washburn, R.; Greene, L. Active Commuting to and from School and BMI in Elementary School Children—Preliminary Data. Child Care Health Dev. 2005, 31, 341–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sirard, J.R.; Riner, W.F.; McIver, K.L.; Pate, R.R. Physical Activity and Active Commuting to Elementary School. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2005, 37, 2062–2069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tudor-Locke, C.; Ainsworth, B.E.; Popkin, B.M. Active Commuting to School: An Overlooked Source of Childrens’ Physical Activity? Sports Med. 2001, 31, 309–313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Larson, L.R.; Green, G.T.; Cordell, H.K. Children’s time outdoors: Results and implications of the National Kids Survey. J. Park Recreat. Adm. 2011, 29, 1–20. [Google Scholar]
- World Health Organization. Global Action Plan on Physical Activity 2018–2030: More Active People for a Healthier World; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Soja, E.W. Seeking Spatial Justice; University of Minesota Press: Minneapolis, MI, USA, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Rehling, J.; Bunge, C.; Waldhauer, J.; Conrad, A. Socioeconomic Differences in Walking Time of Children and Adolescents to Public Green Spaces in Urban Areas—Results of the German Environmental Survey (2014–2017). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xiao, Z.; Lin, T.; Liao, J.; Lin, Y. School Travel Inequity between Students from Public and Private Schools in the City of Shenzhen, China. J. Adv. Transp. 2021, 2021, 5032726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- San Miguel, C.A. Envisioning Child-Friendly Neighborhoods: From the Context of Brazilian Cities to the World. Ph.D. Thesis, Harvard Graduate School of Design, Cambridge, MA, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Braza, M.; Shoemaker, W.; Seeley, A. Neighborhood Design and Rates of Walking and Biking to Elementary School in 34 California Communities. Am. J. Health Promot. 2004, 19, 128–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Falb, M.D.; Kanny, D.; Powell, K.E.; Giarrusso, A.J. Estimating the Proportion of Children Who Can Walk to School. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2007, 33, 269–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ariffin, R.N.R.; Zahari, R.K. Perceptions of the Urban Walking Environments. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 2013, 105, 589–597. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cowie, C.T.; Ding, D.; Rolfe, M.I.; Mayne, D.J.; Jalaludin, B.; Bauman, A.; Morgan, G.G. Neighbourhood Walkability, Road Density and Socio-Economic Status in Sydney, Australia. Environ. Health A Glob. Access Sci. Source 2016, 15, 58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tang, L.; Liu, Y.; Li, J.L.; Qi, R.; Zheng, S.; Chen, B.; Yang, H. Pedestrian Crossing Design and Analysis for Symmetric Intersections: Efficiency and Safety. Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract. 2020, 142, 187–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, H.; Lu, X.; Cherry, C.; Liu, X.; Li, Y. Spatial Variations in Active Mode Trip Volume at Intersections: A Local Analysis Utilizing Geographically Weighted Regression. J. Transp. Geogr. 2017, 64, 184–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pulugurtha, S.S.; Repaka, S.R. An Assessment of Models to Estimate Pedestrian Demand Based on the Level of Activity. J. Adv. Transp. 2013, 47, 190–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mirzaei, E.; Kheyroddin, R.; Behzadfar, M.; Mignot, D. Utilitarian and Hedonic Walking: Examining the Impact of the Built Environment on Walking Behavior. Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. 2018, 10, 20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boarnet, M.G.; Anderson, C.L.; Day, K.; McMillan, T.; Alfonzo, M. Evaluation of the California Safe Routes to School Legislation: Urban Form Changes and Children’s Active Transportation to School. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2005, 28, 134–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bejleri, I.; Steiner, R.L.; Provost, R.E.; Fischman, A.; Arafat, A.A. Understanding and Mapping Elements of Urban Form That Affect Children’s Ability to Walk and Bicycle to School: Case Study of Two Tampa Bay, Florida, Counties. Transp. Res. Rec. 2009, 2137, 148–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Molina-García, J.; Campos, S.; García-Massó, X.; Herrador-Colmenero, M.; Gálvez-Fernández, P.; Molina-Soberanes, D.; Queralt, A.; Chillón, P. Different Neighborhood Walkability Indexes for Active Commuting to School Are Necessary for Urban and Rural Children and Adolescents. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2020, 17, 124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, T.; Huang, B.; Wong, H.; Wong, S.Y.S.; Chung, R.Y.N. Built Environment and Physical Activity among Adults in Hong Kong: Role of Public Leisure Facilities and Street Centrality. Land 2022, 11, 243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Panter, J.R.; Jones, A.P.; van Sluijs, E.M.F. Environmental Determinants of Active Travel in Youth: A Review and Framework for Future Research. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2008, 5, 34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pont, K.; Ziviani, J.; Wadley, D.; Bennett, S.; Abbott, R. Environmental Correlates of Children’s Active Transportation: A Systematic Literature Review. Health Place 2009, 15, 849–862. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hillman, M.; Adams, J.; Whitelegg, J. One False Move; Policy Studies Institute: London, UK, 1990. [Google Scholar]
- Kerr, J.; Rosenberg, D.; Sallis, J.F.; Saelens, B.E.; Frank, L.D.; Conway, T.L. Active Commuting to School: Associations with Environment and Parental Concerns. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2006, 38, 787–793. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shaw, B.; Bicket, M.; Elliott, B.; Fagan-Watson, B. Children’s Independent Mobility: An International Comparison and Recommendations for Action; Policy Studies Institute: London, UK, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Oldeamanuel, M.; Kent, A. Measuring Walk Access to Transit in Terms of Sidewalk Availability, Quality, and Connectivity. J. Urban Plan. Dev. 2016, 142, 04015019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pocock, T.; Moore, A.; Keall, M.; Mandic, S. Physical and Spatial Assessment of School Neighbourhood Built Environments for Active Transport to School in Adolescents from Dunedin (New Zealand). Health Place 2019, 55, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Valentine, G. “My Son’s a Bit Dizzy.” ‘My Wife’s a Bit Soft’: Gender, Children and Cultures of Parenting. Gend. Place Cult. A J. Fem. Geogr. 1997, 4, 37–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nevelsteen, K.; Steenberghen, T.; van Rompaey, A.; Uyttersprot, L. Controlling Factors of the Parental Safety Perception on Children’s Travel Mode Choice. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2012, 45, 39–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guliani, A.; Mitra, R.; Buliung, R.N.; Larsen, K.; Faulkner, G.E.J. Gender-Based Differences in School Travel Mode Choice Behaviour: Examining the Relationship between the Neighbourhood Environment and Perceived Traffic Safety. J. Transp. Health 2015, 2, 502–511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scheiner, J.; Huber, O.; Lohmüller, S. Children’s Mode Choice for Trips to Primary School: A Case Study in German Suburbia. Travel Behav. Soc. 2019, 15, 15–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nikitas, A.; Wang, J.Y.T.; Knamiller, C. Exploring Parental Perceptions about School Travel and Walking School Buses: A Thematic Analysis Approach. Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract. 2019, 124, 468–487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Situación de La Seguridad Vial En RD: Mejora Calidad de Datos, Disminuye El Sub-Registro, y Se Mantiene Repunte Estadísticas Siniestralidad: OPSEVI|INTRANT. Available online: https://opsevi.intrant.gob.do/estadistica/situacion-de-la-seguridad-vial-en-rd-mejora-calidad-de-datos-disminuye-el-sub-registro-y-se-mantiene-repunte-estadisticas-siniestralidad/ (accessed on 26 July 2022).
- Oficina Nacional de Estadística. Base Cartográfica de San Pedro de Macorís. Plan Municipal de Desarrollo 2017–2020. 2018. Available online: https://www.google.com/search?q=oficina+Nacional+de+Estad%C3%ADstica+(2018).+Base+cartogr%C3%A1fica+de+San+Pedro+de+Macor%C3%ADs.+Plan+Municipal+de+Desarrollo+2017-2020.&spell=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi_-PCxx9z5AhVGqlYBHeIUBNUQBSgAegQIARA1&biw=1920&bih=937&dpr=1 (accessed on 23 August 2022).
- Zhu, X.; Arch, B.; Lee, C. Personal, Social, and Environmental Correlates of Walking to School Behaviors: Case Study in Austin, Texas. Sci. World J. 2008, 8, 859–872. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ducheyne, F.; de Bourdeaudhuij, I.; Spittaels, H.; Cardon, G. Individual, Social and Physical Environmental Correlates of “never” and “Always” Cycling to School among 10 to 12 Year Old Children Living within a 3.0 Km Distance from School. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2012, 9, 142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Salmon, J.; Salmon, L.; Crawford, D.A.; Hume, C.; Timperio, A. Associations among Individual, Social, and Environmental Barriers and Children’s Walking or Cycling to School. Am. J. Health Promot. 2007, 22, 107–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Panter, J.R.; Jones, A.P.; van Sluijs, E.M.F.; Griffin, S.J. Attitudes, Social Support and Environmental Perceptions as Predictors of Active Commuting Behaviour in School Children. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2010, 64, 41–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Leslie, E.; Kremer, P.; Toumbourou, J.W.; Williams, J.W. Gender Differences in Personal, Social and Environmental Influences on Active Travel to and from School for Australian Adolescents. J. Sci. Med. Sport 2010, 13, 597–601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gavanas, N.; Tsakalidis, A. Forming the Framework for Sustainable Commuting to Higher Education: The Case of the Technological Educational Institution of Thessaly, Greece. Fresenius Environ. Bull. 2017, 26, 5622–5634. [Google Scholar]
- Banerjee, T.; Uhm, J.A.; Bahl, D. Walking to School: The Experience of Children in Inner City Los Angeles and Implications for Policy. J. Plan. Educ. Res. 2014, 34, 123–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, S.M.; Tudor-Locke, C.; Burns, E.K. Application of a Walking Suitability Assessment to the Immediate Built Environment Surrounding Elementary Schools. Health Promot. Pract. 2008, 9, 246–252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sisson, S.B.; Lee, S.M.; Burns, E.K.; Tudor-Locke, C. Suitability of Commuting by Bicycle to Arizona Elementary Schools. Am. J. Health Promot. 2006, 20, 210–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Giles-Corti, B.; Donovan, R.J. Relative Influences of Individual, Social Environmental, and Physical Environmental Correlates of Walking. Am. J. Public Health 2011, 93, 1583–1589. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Owen, N.; Humpel, N.; Leslie, E.; Bauman, A.; Sallis, J.F. Understanding Environmental Influences on Walking: Review and Research Agenda. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2004, 27, 67–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cunningham, G.O.; Michael, Y.L.; Farquhar, S.A.; Lapidus, J. Developing a Reliable Senior Walking Environmental Assessment Tool. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2005, 29, 215–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Borst, H.C.; de Vries, S.I.; Graham, J.M.A.; van Dongen, J.E.F.; Bakker, I.; Miedema, H.M.E. Influence of Environmental Street Characteristics on Walking Route Choice of Elderly People. J. Environ. Psychol. 2009, 29, 477–484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brookfield, K.; Tilley, S. Using Virtual Street Audits to Understand the Walkability of Older Adults’ Route Choices by Gender and Age. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016, 13, 1061. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pikora, T.J.; Bull, F.C.L.; Jamrozik, K.; Knuiman, M.; Giles-Corti, B.; Donovan, R.J. Developing a Reliable Audit Instrument to Measure the Physical Environment for Physical Activity. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2002, 23, 187–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Emery, J.; Crump, C.; Bors, P. Reliability and Validity of Two Instruments Designed to Assess the Walking and Bicycling Suitability of Sidewalks and Roads. Am. J. Health Promot. 2003, 18, 38–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brownson, R.C.; Hoehner, C.M.; Brennan, L.K.; Cook, R.A.; Elliott, M.B.; Mcmullen, K.M. Reliability of Two Instruments for Auditing the Environment for Physical Activity. J. Phys. Act. Health 2004, 1, 189–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boarnet, M.G.; Day, K.; Alfonzo, M.; Forsyth, A.; Oakes, M. The Irvine–Minnesota Inventory to Measure Built Environments: Reliability Tests. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2006, 30, 153–159.e43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Clifton, K.J.; Livi Smith, A.D.; Rodriguez, D. The Development and Testing of an Audit for the Pedestrian Environment. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2007, 80, 95–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tolkan, J. Audit Tool for the Central Corridor Pedestrian Environment (2008); The Center for Urban and Regional Affairs: Minneapolis, MN, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Hoehner, C.M.; Ivy, A.; Ramirez LK, B.; Handy, S.; Brownson, R.C. Active neighborhood checklist: A user-friendly and reliable tool for assessing activity friendliness. Am. J. Health Promot. 2007, 21, 534–537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Day, K.; Boarnet, M.; Alfonzo, M.; Forsyth, A. The Irvine–Minnesota Inventory to Measure Built Environments: Development. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2006, 30, 144–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gallimore, J.M.; Brown, B.B.; Werner, C.M. Walking Routes to School in New Urban and Suburban Neighborhoods: An Environmental Walkability Analysis of Blocks and Routes. J. Environ. Psychol. 2011, 31, 184–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Werner, C.; Rioux, L.; Mokounkolo, R. L’adaptation de l’Irvine-Minnesota Inventory-IMI Au Contexte Français. Prat. Psychol. 2013, 19, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, S.; Talen, E. Measuring Walkability: A Note on Auditing Methods. J. Urban Des. 2014, 19, 368–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- La Educación Dominicana: Educación Pública y Privada Dominicana, ¿entre El Mal Mayor y El Mal Menor? Available online: http://www.educaciondominicana.info/2013/04/educacion-publica-y-privada-dominicana.html (accessed on 26 July 2022).
- Aranda-Balboa, M.J.; Chillón, P.; Saucedo-Araujo, R.G.; Molina-García, J.; Huertas-Delgado, F.J. Children and Parental Barriers to Active Commuting to School: A Comparison Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ivić, M.; Kilić, J.; Rogulj, K.; Jajac, N. Decision Support to Sustainable Parking Management—Investment Planning through Parking Fines to Improve Pedestrian Flows. Sustainability 2020, 12, 9485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, X.; Yuan, J.; Schultz, G.G.; Fang, S. Investigating the Safety Impact of Roadway Network Features of Suburban Arterials in Shanghai. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2018, 113, 137–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- CUBUKCU, E.; MENSI, B.; HOROZ, C. The Relation Between Urban Morphology and Physical Environmental Qualities: Comparing Walkability in Neighborhoods via Analyses of Spatial Statistics and Indices of Graph Theory and Space Syntax. Süleyman Demirel Univ. J. Nat. Appl. Sci. 2019, 23, 658–665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Milam, A.J.; Furr-Holden, C.D.M.; Cooley-Strickland, M.C.; Bradshaw, C.P.; Leaf, P.J. Risk for Exposure to Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drugs on the Route to and from School: The Role of Alcohol Outlets. Prev. Sci. 2014, 15, 12–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- DeWeese, R.S.; Yedidia, M.J.; Tulloch, D.L.; Ohri-Vachaspati, P. Neighborhood Perceptions and Active School Commuting in Low-Income Cities. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2013, 45, 393–400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gan, Z.; Yang, M.; Zeng, Q.; Timmermans, H.J.P. Associations between Built Environment, Perceived Walkability/Bikeability and Metro Transfer Patterns. Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract. 2021, 153, 171–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ross, A.; Rodríguez, A.; Searle, M. Associations between the Physical, Sociocultural, and Safety Environments and Active Transportation to School. Am. J. Health Educ. 2017, 48, 198–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Timperio, A.; Crawford, D.; Telford, A.; Salmon, J. Perceptions about the Local Neighborhood and Walking and Cycling among Children. Prev. Med. 2004, 38, 39–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rifaat, S.M.; Tay, R.; de Barros, A. Urban Street Pattern and Pedestrian Traffic Safety. J. Urban Des. 2012, 17, 337–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guo, Q.; Xu, P.; Pei, X.; Wong, S.C.; Yao, D. The Effect of Road Network Patterns on Pedestrian Safety: A Zone-Based Bayesian Spatial Modeling Approach. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2017, 99, 114–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Park, H.; Noland, R.B.; Lachapelle, U. Active School Trips: Associations with Caregiver Walking Frequency. Transp. Policy 2013, 29, 23–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- González, S.A.; Sarmiento, O.L.; Lemoine, P.D.; Larouche, R.; Meisel, J.D.; Tremblay, M.S.; Naranjo, M.; Broyles, S.T.; Fogelholm, M.; Holguin, G.A.; et al. Active School Transport among Children from Canada, Colombia, Finland, South Africa, and the United States: A Tale of Two Journeys. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 3847. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wilson, E.J.; Marshall, J.; Wilson, R.; Krizek, K.J. By Foot, Bus or Car: Children’s School Travel and School Choice Policy. Environ. Plan. A 2010, 42, 2168–2185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Copperman, R.B.; Bhat, C.R. An Analysis of the Determinants of Children’s Weekend Physical Activity Participation. Transportation 2007, 34, 67–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mackett, R. Letting Children Be Free to Walk. 2016. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228521859_Letting_children_be_free_to_walk (accessed on 25 July 2022).
- Silva, A.A.D.P.; Lopes, A.A.D.S.; Silva, J.S.B.; Prado, C.V.; Reis, R.S. Characteristics of the Schools’ Surrounding Environment, Distance from Home and Active Commuting in Adolescents from Curitiba, Brazil. Rev. Bras. Epidemiol. 2020, 23, e200065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Domingo, S.; Morillo Pérez, A.; Sectorial, E. Ministerio de Economía, Planificación y Desarrollo Unidad Asesora de Análisis Económico y Social. Unidad Asesora de Análisis Económico y Social, Atlas de la Pobreza 2010 Provincia San Pedro de Macorís. Available online: http://mepyd.gob.do/wp-content/uploads/drive/UAAES/Atlas-Pobreza-2010/Atlas%20pobreza%20provincias%20(Prov%2023%20San%20Pedro%20de%20Macoris%20final).pdf (accessed on 25 July 2022).
- Barrios Marginados y Cotidianidad|Acento. Available online: https://acento.com.do/opinion/barrios-marginados-cotidianidad-8457467.html (accessed on 23 August 2022).
- Lee, C.; Li, L. Demographic, Physical Activity, and Route Characteristics Related to School Transportation: An Exploratory Study. Am. J. Health Promot. 2014, 28, S77–S88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Koekemoer, K.; van Gesselleen, M.; van Niekerk, A.; Govender, R.; van As, A.B. Child Pedestrian Safety Knowledge, Behaviour and Road Injury in Cape Town, South Africa. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2017, 99, 202–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cao, X.; Mokhtarian, P.L.; Handy, S.L. Examining the Impacts of Residential Self-Selection on Travel Behaviour: A Focus on Empirical Findings. Transp. Rev. 2009, 29, 359–395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, H.; He, D.; Lu, Y.; Ren, C.; Huang, X. Disentangling Residential Self-Selection from the Influence of Built Environment Characteristics on Adiposity Outcomes among Undergraduate Students in China. Cities 2021, 113, 103165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Audit Categories | Audit Variables |
---|---|
1. Street signage | Neighborhood entrance signage, speed limit signage, school area signage, clear street signage, stop/yield signage, pedestrian crossing signage |
2. Sidewalks | Sidewalk existence, proper width, universal design, sidewalk surface quality, street furniture, cleanliness, vegetation, rain garden, drainage, bollards, connectivity, sidewalk amenities |
3. Traffic road | Proper width, vehicles lanes, alley, street direction, traffic road surface quality, speed bumps |
4. Street crossing | Curb cuts, crosswalk, traffic road light, pedestrian light, pedestrian bridge |
5. Street safety | Safety perception for crossing, vandalism, street dogs, abandoned buildings, buildings with windows to the street, street lighting |
6. Land use | Residential, education, public space, recreational/leisure/fitness, public/civic building, institutional, commercial, office/ service, industrial/manufacturing, transportation center, undeveloped land, mixed-use, bar (disco), liquor store, adult uses (strip club, motel) |
7. Barriers | Highway, impassable land use, river/lake, drainage ditches |
8. Architecture/design | Segment attractiveness, historic building existence, landmark existence |
9. Public transportation | Existence, condition–quality, location, signage |
10. Parking | Availability of parking lots, parking entrance near school, illegal car parking, illegal motorcycle parking |
Class | Variable | Description | Data Source |
---|---|---|---|
Mode choice | Child’s mode to school (D.V.) | Child’s mode choice to school (other modes = 0, walking or bicycling = 1) | Survey |
Demographic | Child’s gender | Gender of child respondents (male = 0, female = 1) | |
Child’s age group | Age group of child respondents (6–12 years old = 0, 13–18 years old = 1) | ||
School type | Type of school (public school = 0, private school = 1) | ||
Number of vehicles | How many vehicles are in your house? | ||
Perception and preference | The perceived safety of walking/bicycling to school | How safe do you feel riding your bike and walking near your school? (not very safe = 1, somewhat safe = 2, and quite safe = 3) | |
Familiarity with the school neighborhood | Are you familiar with the area surrounding your school? | ||
Feels vehicles are too fast | Do you feel uneasy because the cars move fast? | ||
Feels there are many interesting things to look at | Are there a lot of interesting sights to see while strolling through the area around your school? | ||
Prefers to commute by car | Do you prefer going to school by car? | ||
Sees other children walking | I see other students walking to school | ||
Physical environment | Intersections | Number of four-way intersections | GIS source |
Irregular street pattern | Irregular or curvilinear street pattern | ||
Grid street pattern | Gridiron street layout | ||
LU_Residential | Streets where single-family residences, condominiums, and apartments predominate | Audit data | |
LU_Commercial | Streets where stores, restaurants, banks, car dealerships, and gas stations predominate | ||
LU_Industrial | Streets with chemical plants and factories | ||
Vandalism | Streets with visible graffiti, vandalism, and destruction of public property | ||
Abandoned buildings | Streets with boarded-up or broken-window buildings | ||
Bars | The presence of bars that serve alcohol and/or hold dances | ||
Illegal parking | Cars parked in a restricted area |
Variable | Groups | Mean | SD | Mean Difference | SE Difference | p(Sig) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Intersections | Public | 13.50 | 11.45 | −11.80 | 6.49 | 0.09 * |
Private | 25.30 | 17.04 | ||||
Irregular street pattern | Public | 0.60 | 0.52 | 0.40 | 0.21 | 0.07 * |
Private | 0.20 | 0.42 | ||||
Grid street pattern | Public | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.40 | 0.16 | 0.04 ** |
Private | 0.40 | 0.52 | ||||
School area signage | Public | 1.55 | 0.37 | −0.40 | 0.15 | 0.01 ** |
Private | 1.95 | 0.28 | ||||
Sidewalk existence | Public | 2.38 | 0.40 | −0.39 | 0.17 | 0.04 ** |
Private | 2.76 | 0.36 | ||||
Sidewalk connectivity | Public | 1.88 | 0.58 | −0.66 | 0.21 | 0.01 ** |
Private | 2.54 | 0.33 | ||||
Road drainage | Public | 1.94 | 0.55 | −0.55 | 0.23 | 0.03 ** |
Private | 2.50 | 0.48 | ||||
Speedbumps | Public | 1.86 | 0.36 | −0.32 | 0.14 | 0.03 ** |
Private | 2.19 | 0.23 | ||||
Crosswalk marks | Public | 1.50 | 0.64 | −0.53 | 0.23 | 0.04 ** |
Private | 2.03 | 0.35 | ||||
Vandalism | Public | 2.03 | 0.50 | −0.37 | 0.23 | 0.12 |
Private | 2.39 | 0.52 | ||||
Abandoned buildings | Public | 0.49 | 0.12 | 0.09 | 0.04 | 0.05 * |
Private | 0.40 | 0.07 | ||||
LU_Residential | Public | 2.70 | 0.18 | −0.10 | 0.07 | 0.16 |
Private | 2.80 | 0.13 | ||||
LU_Commercial | Public | 1.46 | 0.30 | −0.09 | 0.19 | 0.65 |
Private | 1.55 | 0.50 | ||||
LU_Industrial | Public | 1.13 | 0.20 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.23 |
Private | 1.05 | 0.07 | ||||
Bars | Public | 2.73 | 0.14 | −0.13 | 0.06 | 0.04 ** |
Private | 2.86 | 0.12 | ||||
Illegal parking | Public | 2.50 | 0.54 | 0.16 | 0.24 | 0.51 |
Private | 2.34 | 0.51 |
Questions | Groups | Mean | SD | Mean Difference | SE Difference | p(Sig) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Time it takes to get to school | Children | 1.72 | 0.781 | −0.15 | 0.06 | 0.02 ** |
Parents | 1.87 | 0.748 | ||||
Thinks there is too much to carry | Children | 2.47 | 0.799 | 0.27 | 0.07 | 0.00 ** |
Parents | 2.2 | 0.898 | ||||
Gets too hot and sweaty | Children | 2.53 | 0.752 | 0.18 | 0.07 | 0.01 ** |
Parents | 2.35 | 0.867 | ||||
Prefers to commute by car | Children | 2.7 | 0.618 | 0.17 | 0.06 | 0.00 ** |
Parents | 2.52 | 0.772 | ||||
Sees other students walking to school | Children | 2.81 | 0.505 | 0.19 | 0.05 | 0.00 ** |
Parents | 2.62 | 0.673 | ||||
Feels familiar walking around the school neighborhood | Children | 2.38 | 0.778 | 0.2 | 0.07 | 0.00 ** |
Parents | 2.2 | 0.814 | ||||
School neighborhood is well shaded by trees | Children | 2.33 | 0.818 | 0.17 | 0.07 | 0.02 ** |
Parents | 2.16 | 0.891 | ||||
Traffic road light time is too short to cross the street | Children | 1.98 | 0.771 | 0.14 | 0.07 | 0.04 ** |
Parents | 1.84 | 0.849 | ||||
Would like more help crossing the street | Children | 2.29 | 0.847 | −0.45 | 0.06 | 0.00 ** |
Parents | 2.74 | 0.609 | ||||
Feels vehicles are too fast | Children | 2.17 | 0.852 | −0.08 | 0.07 | 0.25 |
Parents | 2.25 | 0.839 | ||||
Feels there are many interesting things to look at | Children | 2.09 | 0.835 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.54 |
Parents | 2.04 | 0.847 |
Children | Parents | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | p(Sig) | Exp(B) | B | p(Sig) | Exp(B) | |
Physical environment of the school zone | ||||||
Intersections | 0.015 | 0.315 | 1.015 | −0.015 | 0.346 | 0.985 |
Irregular street pattern | 0.057 | 0.894 | 1.059 | −0.315 | 0.543 | 0.730 |
Grid street pattern | 1.175 | 0.053 * | 3.238 | 1.634 | 0.013 ** | 5.124 |
LU_Residential | 1.406 | 0.382 | 4.076 | −1.741 | 0.307 | 0.175 |
LU_Commercial | −0.525 | 0.296 | 0.592 | −0.009 | 0.987 | 0.991 |
LU_Industrial | −1.270 | 0.267 | 0.281 | −1.186 | 0.337 | 0.305 |
Vandalism | −0.565 | 0.104 | 0.568 | −0.864 | 0.049 ** | 0.421 |
Abandoned buildings | 1.606 | 0.417 | 4.983 | −0.718 | 0.755 | 0.488 |
Bars | 1.092 | 0.433 | 2.980 | 0.755 | 0.618 | 2.128 |
Illegal parking | −0.666 | 0.087 * | 0.514 | −0.011 | 0.979 | 0.989 |
Perception and preference | ||||||
Familiarwiththe school neighborhood | 0.872 | 0.000 ** | 2.392 | 0.876 | 0.000 ** | 2.401 |
Feels vehicles are too fast | −0.404 | 0.006 ** | 0.668 | −0.385 | 0.017 ** | 0.680 |
Feels there are many interesting things to look at | 0.397 | 0.010 ** | 1.487 | 0.490 | 0.004 ** | 1.632 |
Prefers to commute by car | −0.486 | 0.014 ** | 0.615 | −0.337 | 0.051 * | 0.714 |
Sees other students while strolling | −0.025 | 0.920 | 0.975 | 0.260 | 0.232 | 1.297 |
Chi-square (Sig.) | 101.918 (0.000) | 81.244 (0.000) | ||||
Nagelkerke | 0.320 | 0.304 |
B | p(Sig) | Exp(B) | |
---|---|---|---|
Child’s demographics | |||
Child’s gender (female = 1) | 0.251 | 0.494 | 1.285 |
Child’s age group (13–18 years old = 1) | 0.493 | 0.234 | 1.638 |
School type (private school = 1) | −1.372 | 0.008 ** | 0.254 |
Number of vehicles | −1.450 | 0.000 ** | 0.235 |
Physical environment of the school zone | |||
Intersections | −0.037 | 0.037 ** | 0.964 |
LU_Residential | −0.440 | 0.832 | 0.644 |
LU_Industrial | −6.077 | 0.001 ** | 0.002 |
Vandalism | −0.715 | 0.190 | 0.489 |
Abandoned buildings | −9.607 | 0.004 ** | 0.002 |
Bars | −6.024 | 0.004 ** | 0.002 |
Illegal parking | 1.124 | 0.089 * | 3.076 |
Perception and preference | |||
Familiarwiththe school neighborhood | 0.731 | 0.005 ** | 2.077 |
Feels vehicles are too fast | 0.674 | 0.002 ** | 1.962 |
Prefers to commute by car | −1.086 | 0.000 ** | 0.338 |
Perceived safety of walking/bicycling to school | 0.685 | 0.006 ** | 1.984 |
Sees other students while strolling | 0.737 | 0.070 * | 2.089 |
Chi-square (Sig.) | 182.705 (0.000) | ||
Nagelkerke | 0.607 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Torres, M.A.; Oh, H.W.; Lee, J. The Built Environment and Children’s Active Commuting to School: A Case Study of San Pedro De Macoris, the Dominican Republic. Land 2022, 11, 1454. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11091454
Torres MA, Oh HW, Lee J. The Built Environment and Children’s Active Commuting to School: A Case Study of San Pedro De Macoris, the Dominican Republic. Land. 2022; 11(9):1454. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11091454
Chicago/Turabian StyleTorres, Maite Adames, Hye Won Oh, and Jeongwoo Lee. 2022. "The Built Environment and Children’s Active Commuting to School: A Case Study of San Pedro De Macoris, the Dominican Republic" Land 11, no. 9: 1454. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11091454
APA StyleTorres, M. A., Oh, H. W., & Lee, J. (2022). The Built Environment and Children’s Active Commuting to School: A Case Study of San Pedro De Macoris, the Dominican Republic. Land, 11(9), 1454. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11091454