Soil Erosion and Deposition Rate Inside an Artificial Reservoir in Central Italy: Bathymetry versus RUSLE and Morphometry
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Sediment Connectivity
2.3. Bathymetric Surveys and Sediment Characteristics
2.4. Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE)
2.5. Morphometric Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Connectivity Analysis
3.2. Bathymetric Analysis
3.3. RUSLE Analysis
3.4. Morphometric Analysis
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Software
References
- Terranova, O.; Antronico, L.; Coscarelli, R.; Iaquinta, P. Soil erosion risk scenarios in the Mediterranean environment using RUSLE and GIS: An application model for Calabria (southern Italy). Geomorphology 2009, 112, 228–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mulholland, P.J.; Elwood, J.W. The role of lake and reservoir sediments as sinks in the perturbed global carbon cycle. Tellus 1982, 34, 490–499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alighalehbabakhani, F.; Miller, C.J.; Selegean, J.P.; Barkach, J.; Sadatiyan Abkenar, S.M.; Dahl, T.; Baskaran, M. Estimates of sediment trapping rates for two reservoirs in the Lake Erie watershed: Past and present scenarios. J. Hydrol. 2017, 544, 147–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mekonnen, M.; Keesstra, S.D.; Baartman, J.E.; Ritsema, C.J.; Melesse, A.M. Evaluating Sediment Storage Dams: Structural Off-Site Sediment Trapping Measures In Northwest Ethiopia. Cuad. Investig. Geográfica Geogr. Res. Lett. 2015, 41, 7–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Issa, I.E.; Al-ansari, N.; Knutsson, S.; Sherwany, G. Monitoring and Evaluating the Sedimentation Process in Mosul Dam Reservoir Using Trap Efficiency Approaches. Engineering 2015, 7, 190–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kummu, M.; Lu, X.X.; Wang, J.J.; Varis, O. Geomorphology Basin-wide sediment trapping efficiency of emerging reservoirs along the Mekong. Geomorphology 2010, 119, 181–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kummu, M.; Taka, M.; Guillaume, J.H.A. Gridded global datasets for Gross Domestic Product and Human Development Index over 1990–2015. Sci. Data 2018, 5, 180004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mulu, A.; Dwarakish, G.S. Different Approach for Using Trap Efficiency for Estimation of Reservoir Sedimentation. An Overview. Aquat. Procedia 2015, 4, 847–852. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, X.; Lu, X.X. Geomorphology Estimate of cumulative sediment trapping by multiple reservoirs in large river basins: An example of the Yangtze River basin. Geomorphology 2014, 227, 49–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- FAO. Acqua per le Colture-Ogni Goccia D’acqua Conta; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Rodrigo-Comino, J. Five decades of soil erosion research in “terroir”. The State-of-the-Art. Earth-Sci. Rev. 2018, 179, 436–447. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Keesstra, S.D.; Rodrigo-comino, J.; Novara, A.; Giménez-morera, A.; Pulido, M. Catena Straw mulch as a sustainable solution to decrease runo ff and erosion in glyphosate-treated clementine plantations in Eastern Spain. An assessment using rainfall simulation experiments. Catena 2019, 174, 95–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moges, M.M.; Abay, D.; Engidayehu, H. Investigating reservoir sedimentation and its implications to watershed sediment yield: The case of two small dams in data-scarce upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. Lakes Reserv. Res. Manag. 2018, 23, 217–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ranzi, R.; Hung, T.; Cristina, M. A RUSLE approach to model suspended sediment load in the Lo river (Vietnam): Effects of reservoirs and land use changes. J. Hydrol. 2012, 422–423, 17–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bufalini, M.; Omran, A.; Bosino, A. Assessment of Badlands Erosion Dynamics in the Adriatic Side of Central Italy. Geosciences 2022, 12, 208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cerdà, A.; Esteban, M.; Borja, L.; Úbeda, X.; Martínez-murillo, J.F.; Keesstra, S. Forest Ecology and Management Pinus halepensis M. versus Quercus ilex subsp. Rotundifolia L. runoff and soil erosion at pedon scale under natural rainfall in Eastern Spain three decades after a forest fire. For. Ecol. Manag. 2017, 400, 447–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Del Monte, M.; Vergari, F.; Brandolini, P.; Capolongo, D.; Cevasco, A.; Ciccacci, S.; Conoscenti, C.; Fredi, P.; Melelli, L.; Rotigliano, E.; et al. Multi-method Evaluation of Denudation Rates in Small Mediterranean Catchments. In Engineering Geology for Society and Territory-Volume 1; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2015; Volume 1, pp. 563–567. [Google Scholar]
- Valero-Garces, B.L.; Navas, A.; Machın, J.; Walling, D. Sediment sources and siltation in mountain reservoirs: A case study from the Central Spanish Pyrenees. Geomorphology 1999, 28, 23–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Krasa, J.; Dostal, T.; Van Rompaey, A.; Vaska, J.; Vrana, K. Reservoirs’ siltation measurments and sediment transport assessment in the Czech Republic, the Vrchlice catchment study. CATENA 2005, 64, 348–362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Conoscenti, C.; Martinello, C.; Alfonso-Torreño, A.; Gómez-Gutiérrez, Á. Predicting sediment deposition rate in check-dams using machine learning techniques and high-resolution DEMs. Environ. Earth Sci. 2021, 80, 380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bazzoffi, P.; Vanino, S. L’interrimento degli Invasi ad uso irriguo nelle Regioni Meridionali: Rilievi Diretti, Metodologie e Modellistica; INEA: Rome, Italy, 2010; p. 76. [Google Scholar]
- Patro, E.R.; De Michele, C.; Granata, G.; Biagini, C. Assessment of current reservoir sedimentation rate and storage capacity loss: An Italian overview. J. Environ. Manage. 2022, 320, 115826. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kouli, M.; Soupios, P.; Vallianatos, F. Soil erosion prediction using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) in a GIS framework, Chania, Northwestern Crete, Greece. Environ. Geol. 2008, 57, 483–497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Renard, K.G.; Foster, G.R.; Weesies, D.K.; McCool, D.K.; Yoder, D.C. Predicting Soil Erosion. In U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook; Science and Education Administration United States Department of Agriculture, Southwest Watershed Research Center: Tucson, AZ, USA, 1997; p. 384. ISBN 0-16-048938-5. [Google Scholar]
- Wischmeier, W.H.; Smith, D.D. Predicting Rainfall EROSION Losses—A Guide to Conservation Planning; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Science and Education: Tucson, AZ, USA, 1978; p. 69. [Google Scholar]
- Lufafa, A.; Tenywa, M.M.; Isabirye, M.; Majaliwa, M.J.G.; Woomer, P.L. Prediction of soil erosion in a Lake Victoria basin catchment using a GIS-based Universal Soil Loss model. Agric. Syst. 2003, 76, 883–894. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fu, B.J.; Zhao, W.W.; Chen, L.D.; Zhang, Q.J.; Lü, Y.H.; Gulinck, H.; Poesen, J. Assessment of soil erosion at large watershed scale using RUSLE and GIS: A case study in the Loess Plateau of China. Land Degrad. Dev. 2005, 16, 73–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Napoli, M.; Cecchi, S.; Orlandini, S.; Mugnai, G.; Zanchi, C.A. Simulation of field-measured soil loss in Mediterranean hilly areas (Chianti, Italy) with RUSLE. Catena 2016, 145, 246–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bazzoffi, P.; Abbattista, F.; Vanino, S.; Napoli, R.; Fais, A.; Nino, P. Loss of water storage capacity of reservoirs in Southern Italy: Economic implications of sedimentation. In Proceedings of the OECD Workshop on Agriculture and Water: Sustainability Markets and Policies, Adelaide, Australia, 14–18 November 2005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aiello, A.; Adamo, M.; Canora, F. Remote sensing and GIS to assess soil erosion with RUSLE3D and USPED at river basin scale in southern Italy. Catena 2015, 131, 174–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lupia Palmieri, E. Il problema della valutazione dell’entità dell’erosione nei bacini fluviali. In Proceedings of the XXIII Congresso Geografico Italiano, Catania, Italy, 9–13 May 1983; pp. 143–176. [Google Scholar]
- Schumm, S.A. Origin of the Chuska Sandstone, Arizona-New Tertiary Eolian Sediment. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 1956, 67, 597–646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Horton, R.E. Drainage-basin characteristics. Eos. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 1932, 13, 350–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amici, M.; Spina, R. Campo medio della precipitazione annuale e stagionale sulle Marche per il periodo 1950–2000; Osservatorio Geofisico Sperimentale: Macerata, Italy, 2002; 103 p. [Google Scholar]
- Gentilucci, M.; Bufalini, M.; Materazzi, M.; Barbieri, M.; Aringoli, D.; Farabollini, P.; Pambianchi, G. Calculation of potential evapotranspiration and calibration of the hargreaves equation using geostatistical methods over the last 10 years in central Italy. Geosciences 2021, 11, 348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gentilucci, M.; Bufalini, M.; D’aprile, F.; Materazzi, M.; Pambianchi, G. Comparison of data from rain gauges and the IMERG product to analyse precipitation in mountain areas of central Italy. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 795. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gentilucci, M.; Materazzi, M.; Pambianchi, G.; Burt, P.; Guerriero, G. Temperature variations in Central Italy (Marche region) and effects on wine grape production. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 2020, 140, 303–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Materazzi, M.; Bufalini, M.; Gentilucci, M.; Pambianchi, G.; Aringoli, D.; Farabollini, P. Landslide hazard assessment in a monoclinal setting (Central italy): Numerical vs. geomorphological approach. Land 2021, 10, 624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pierantoni, P.; Deiana, G.; Galdenzi, S. Stratigraphic and structural features of the sibillini mountains(Umbria-Marche Apennines, Italy). Ital. J. Geosci. 2013, 132, 497–520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Centamore, E.; Deiana, G.; Micarelli, A.; Potetti, M. Il Trias-Paleogene delle Marche. In Studi Geologici Camerti, Volume Speciale “La Geologia delle Marche”; Università di Camerino: Camerino, Italy, 1986; pp. 9–27. [Google Scholar]
- Aringoli, D.; Gentili, B.; Materazzi, M.; Pambianchi, G. Landslides: Causes, Types and Effects—Mass Movements in Adriatic Central Italy: Activation and Evolutive Control Factors; Werner, E.D., Ed.; Nova Science Publishers: New York, NY, USA, 2010; pp. 1–71. ISBN 9781607412588. [Google Scholar]
- Buccolini, M.; Bufalini, M.; Coco, L.; Materazzi, M.; Piacentini, T. Small catchments evolution on clayey hilly landscapes in Central Apennines and northern Sicily (Italy) since the Late Pleistocene. Geomorphology 2020, 363, 107206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gentili, B.; Pambianchi, G.; Aringoli, D.; Materazzi, M.; Giacopetti, M. Pliocene-Pleistocene geomorphological evolution of the Adriatic side of Central Italy. Geol. Carpathica 2017, 68, 6–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bufalini, M.; Materazzi, M.; De Amicis, M.; Pambianchi, G. From traditional to modern ‘full coverage’ geomorphological mapping: A study case in the Chienti river basin (Marche region, central Italy). J. Maps 2021, 17, 17–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Croke, J.; Mockler, S.; Fogarty, P.; Takken, I. Sediment concentration changes in runoff pathways from a forest road network and the resultant spatial pattern of catchment connectivity. Geomorphology 2005, 68, 257–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bracken, L.J.; Croke, J. The concept of hydrological connectivity and its contribution to understanding runoff-dominated geomorphic systems. Hydrol. Process. 2007, 21, 1749–1763. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Borselli, L.; Cassi, P.; Torri, D. Prolegomena to sediment and flow connectivity in the landscape: A GIS and field numerical assessment. Catena 2008, 75, 268–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hooke, J. Coarse sediment connectivity in river channel systems: A conceptual framework and methodology. Geomorphology 2003, 56, 79–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cavalli, M.; Trevisani, S.; Comiti, F.; Marchi, L. Geomorphometric assessment of spatial sediment connectivity in small Alpine catchments. Geomorphology 2013, 188, 31–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Geomarine Rilievi batimetrici e campionamento del sedimento del Lago Le Grazie nel Comune di Tolentino (MC). Relazione Tecnica. 2006.
- Geomarine Rilievi batimetrici. Lago Le Grazie—Comune di Tolentino (MC). Relazione Tecnica. 2015.
- Aquater. Regione Marche. Studio generale per la difesa delle coste: Prima fase. 1982, Vol. 1 (Relazione Generale), 176; Vol. 2 (Rapporti Settore), 706.
- Liu, W.; Wang, L.; Zhou, J.; Li, Y.; Sun, F.; Fu, G.; Li, X.; Sang, Y.F. A worldwide evaluation of basin-scale evapotranspiration estimates against the water balance method. J. Hydrol. 2016, 538, 82–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Morgan, R.P.C.; Quinton, J.N.; Smith, R.E.; Govers, G.; Poesen, J.W.A.; Auerswald, K.; Chisci, G.; Torri, D.; Styczen, M.E. The European Soil Erosion Model (Eurosem): A Dynamic Approach for Predicting Sediment Transport from Fields and Small Catchments. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 1998, 23, 527–544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McCool, D.K.; Wischmeier, W.H.; Johnson, L.C. Adapting the universal soil loss equation to the Pacific Northwest. Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. 1982, 25, 928–934. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moore, I.D.; Burch, G.J. Modelling Erosion and Deposition: Topographic Effects. Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. 1986, 29, 1624–1630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moore, I.D.; Wilson, J.P. Length-slope factors for the revised universal soil loss equation: Simplified method of estimation. J. Soil Water Conserv. 1992, 47, 423–428. [Google Scholar]
- Benkobi, L.; Trlica, M.J.; Smith, J.L. Evaluation of a refined surface cover subfactor for use in RUSLE. J. Range Manag. 1994, 47, 74–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Biesemans, J.; Van Meirvenne, M.; Gabriels, D. Extending the RUSLE with the Monte Carlo error propagation technique to predict long-term average off-site sediment accumulation. J. Soil Water Conserv. 2000, 55, 35–42. [Google Scholar]
- Suoli e Paesaggi delle Marche: Programma Interregionale Agricoltura e Qualità, Misura 5, Carta dei Suoli, Scala 1:250.000 (dD.G.R. n. 2805 del 18/12/2000); ASSAM: Ancona, Italy, 2005; p. 41.
- Gentili, B.; Pambianchi, G. Erosione e sedimentazione negli alti bacini fluviali delle Marche centro-meridionali.pdf. Boll. Mus. St. Nat. Lunigiana 1988, 35–40. [Google Scholar]
- Cerdan, O.; Govers, G.; Le Bissonnais, Y.; Van Oost, K.; Poesen, J.; Saby, N.; Gobin, A.; Vacca, A.; Quinton, J.; Auerswald, K.; et al. Rates and spatial variations of soil erosion in Europe: A study based on erosion plot data. Geomorphology 2010, 122, 167–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Conforti, M.; Buttafuoco, G.; Rago, V.; Aucelli, P.P.C.; Robustelli, G.; Scarciglia, F.; Conforti, M.; Buttafuoco, G.; Rago, V.; Aucelli, P.P.C. Soil loss assessment in the Turbolo catchment. J. Maps 2015, 12, 815–825. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Borrelli, P.; Märker, M.; Panagos, P.; Schütt, B. Modeling soil erosion and river sediment yield for an intermountain drainage basin of the Central Apennines, Italy. Catena 2014, 114, 45–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Agricultural Lands | Other Land Uses | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Slope (%) | 0–5 | 5–10 | 10–20 | 20–30 | 30–50 | 50–100 | 0–100 |
P factor | 0.1 | 0.12 | 0.14 | 0.19 | 0.25 | 0.33 | 1 |
CLC Class (III Level) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2.1.1 | 2.4.2 | 2.4.3 | 3.1.1 | 3.2.4 | |
P-factor | 0.8 | 0.25–0.5 | 0.2 |
Corine Land Cover | |||
---|---|---|---|
Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | C Factor |
2. Agricultural areas | 2.1 Arable land | 2.1.1 Non irrigated arable land | 0.1 |
2.4 Heterogeneous agricultural areas | 2.4.2 Complex cultivation patterns | 0.05 | |
2.4.3 Land principally occupied by agriculture | 0.07 | ||
3. Forests and seminatural areas | 3.1 Forest | 3.1.1 Broad-leaved forests | 0.001 |
3.2 Shrub and/or herbaceous vegetation associations | 3.2.4 Transitional woodland shrub | 0.04 | |
5. Water bodies | 5.1 Continental waters | 5.1.2 Water bodies | 0 |
Water Budget | ||||||
1963 | 2006 | 2015 | ||||
Water volume [m3] | 940,666 | 323,085 | 170,167 | |||
Volume lost [m3] | 617,581 | 770,499 | ||||
Volume lost (%) | 65.65% | 81.91% | ||||
Sediment Budget and Deposition Rate | ||||||
1963–2015 | 1963–2006 | 2006–2015 | ||||
m3/year | mm/ year | m3/year | mm/year | m3/year | mm/year | |
Le Grazie (entire reservoir) | 14,817 | 128.38 | 14,362 | 124.44 | 16,991 | 147.21 |
Le Grazie (reservoir-SW sector) | 4153 | 123.38 | 3676 | 109.22 | 470 | 13.97 |
Le Grazie (large fan) | 9266 | 153.30 | 9157 | 151.51 | 9520 | 157.50 |
Le Grazie (small fan) | 3125 | 142.81 | 3455 | 157.88 | 999 | 45.63 |
Deposition Rate (Bathymetric Analysis) | ||||||
1963–2015 | 1963–2006 | 2006–2015 | ||||
m3/year | tons/year | m3/year | tons/year | m3/year | tons/year | |
Le Grazie (large fan) | 9266 | 15,567 | 9157 | 15,384 | 9520 | 15,232 |
Le Grazie (small fan) | 3125 | 5250 | 3455 | 5804 | 999 | 1678 |
Soil erosion rate (RUSLE) | ||||||
P-factor method | ||||||
Wischmeier (tons/year) | Napoli-Wener (tons/year) | Bazzoffi (tons/year) | ||||
San Rocco basin | 2421 | 7883 | 4066 | |||
IC-based ontribution basin | 1658 | 5365 | 2800 |
Reservoir | Source | Year of Construction | Initial Volume Stored (Mm3) | Bathymetric Studies (Period of Observation) | n. Years | Basin Area (km2) | Stream Frequency (Fs) (km-2) | Relief Ratio (Rh) | Sediment Volume (Mm3) | Fillling Rate (m3/year) | Mean Annual Denudation Index (Id) (mm/year) | Estimated Life of the Reservoir (Years) | Estimated Remaining Life (Years) | Trap Efficiency Loss (at 2015) (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fiastrone | [52] | 1955 | unknown | 1955–1982 | 27 | 75.00 | 0.86 | 0.17 | 0.89 | 32,900 | 0.44 | * | * | * |
Polverina | [52] | 1967 | 5.80 | 1967–1982 | 15 | 360.94 | 0.62 | 0.06 | 1.37 | 91,600 | 0.25 | 63 | 15 | 76% |
Borgiano | [52] | 1954 | 5.05 | 1954–1982 | 28 | 446.87 | 0.66 | 0.05 | 0.88 | 31,250 | 0.35 | 162 | 101 | 38% |
S. Maria | [52] | 1955 | 0.56 | 1955–1982 | 27 | 628.13 | 0.63 | 0.04 | 0.30 | 10,970 | 0.27 | 51 | -9 | 100% |
S. Ruffino | [52] | 1957 | unknown | 1957–1982 | 25 | 134.50 | 0.92 | 0.10 | 0.42 | 16,900 | 0.13 | * | * | |
Villa Pera | [52] | 1955 | unknown | 1955–1982 | 27 | 85.94 | 1.01 | 0.10 | 0.50 | 18,400 | 0.21 | * | * | |
Scandarello | [52] | 1924 | unknown | 1924–1982 | 58 | 43.75 | 1.46 | 0.05 | 1.28 | 22,000 | 0.50 | * | * | |
Colombara | [52] | 1955 | unknown | 1955–1982 | 27 | 389.06 | 1.24 | 0.07 | 0.26 | 9,700 | 0.08 | * | * | |
Talvacchia | [52] | 1962 | unknown | 1962–1982 | 20 | 156.25 | 1.12 | 0.10 | 1.17 | 58,330 | 0.37 | * | * | |
Le Grazie (entire basin) | [52] | 1963 | 1.12 | 1963–1982 | 19 | 637.50 | 0.65 | 0.05 | 0.50 | 26,100 | 0.04 | 43 | -9 | 100% |
Le Grazie (entire basin) | Present study | 1963 | 1.12 | 1963–2006 | 43 | 637.50 | 0.65 | 0.05 | 0.73 | 0 | 0.00 | 66 | 14 | 79% |
Le Grazie (entire basin) | Present study | 1963 | 1.12 | 2006–2015 | 9 | 637.50 | 0.65 | 0.05 | 0.12 | 0 | 0.00 | 82 | 30 | 64% |
Le Grazie (entire basin) | Present study | 1963 | 1.12 | 1963–2015 | 52 | 637.50 | 0.65 | 0.05 | 0.85 | 16,418 | 0.03 | 68 | 16 | 76% |
Le Grazie (S. Rocco wat.) | Present study | 1963 | * | 1963–2006 | 43 | 13.15 | 3.80 | 0.02 | 0.39 | 9,095 | 0.69 | * | * | * |
Le Grazie (S. Rocco wat.) | Present study | 1963 | * | 2006–2015 | 9 | 13.15 | 3.80 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 8,221 | 0.63 | * | * | * |
Le Grazie (S. Rocco wat.) | Present study | 1963 | * | 1963–2015 | 52 | 13.15 | 3.80 | 0.02 | 0.47 | 8,944 | 0.68 | * | * | * |
Site | Area (km2) | Bedrock | Land Use | Climate | Mean Erosion Rate (ton/ha/year) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
European Countries | Unknown | various | arable | Various-continental | 6.33 | [62] |
European Countries | Unknown | various | forest | Various-continental | 0.84 | [62] |
Mediterranean countries | Unknown | various | arable | Mediterranean | 0.00 | [62] |
Mediterranean countries | Unknown | various | forest | Mediterranean | 0.18 | [62] |
Turano basin (Italy) | 466.7 | various | forest (60%) arable (8%) grassland and pastures (8%), various (24%) | Mediterranean | ~11 | [64] |
Turano basin (Italy) | 59.2 | various | arable | Mediterranean | 25.40 | [64] |
Turano basin (Italy) | 288.7 | various | forest | Mediterranean | 3.90 | [64] |
Tombolo basin (Italy) | 30 | Sandstones and clays | various | Mediterranean-subhumid | 5.65 | [63] |
Tombolo basin (Italy) | ~13 | Sandstones and clays | arable | Mediterranean-subhumid | ~38 | [63] |
Tombolo basin (Italy) | ~8 | Sandstones and clays | forest | Mediterranean-subhumid | ~1 | [63] |
San Rocco basin (Italy) | ~13 | Sandstones and clays | arable (62%) forest and shrub (38%) | Mediterranean | 3.12 | Present study |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Bufalini, M.; Materazzi, M.; Martinello, C.; Rotigliano, E.; Pambianchi, G.; Tromboni, M.; Paniccià, M. Soil Erosion and Deposition Rate Inside an Artificial Reservoir in Central Italy: Bathymetry versus RUSLE and Morphometry. Land 2022, 11, 1924. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11111924
Bufalini M, Materazzi M, Martinello C, Rotigliano E, Pambianchi G, Tromboni M, Paniccià M. Soil Erosion and Deposition Rate Inside an Artificial Reservoir in Central Italy: Bathymetry versus RUSLE and Morphometry. Land. 2022; 11(11):1924. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11111924
Chicago/Turabian StyleBufalini, Margherita, Marco Materazzi, Chiara Martinello, Edoardo Rotigliano, Gilberto Pambianchi, Michele Tromboni, and Marco Paniccià. 2022. "Soil Erosion and Deposition Rate Inside an Artificial Reservoir in Central Italy: Bathymetry versus RUSLE and Morphometry" Land 11, no. 11: 1924. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11111924