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Review

Research Progress on the Occurrence, Adsorption, and Release of Phosphorus in the Sediments of Dianchi Lake and Prospects for Its Control

by
Xue Wu
1,2,3,
Yancai Wang
2,
Yirong Chang
2,
Zhengzheng Hao
4,
Lixin Jiao
3,* and
Rui Zhang
5,*
1
Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China
2
Kunming Institute of Eco-Environmental Sciences, Kunming 650032, China
3
State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
4
Yunnan Dianwei Environmental Protection Technology Co., Ltd., Kunming 650031, China
5
College of Civil Engineering, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2025, 17(11), 1652; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111652
Submission received: 13 April 2025 / Revised: 26 May 2025 / Accepted: 28 May 2025 / Published: 29 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Environment Pollution and Control, 4th Edition)
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Abstract

:
Phosphorus plays a key role in water eutrophication. The release of endogenous phosphorus from sediments maintains eutrophication in Dianchi Lake. This study aimed to summarize and analyze the research trends, occurrence characteristics, adsorption and release characteristics, influencing factors, and prospects of internal phosphorus pollution control in Dianchi Lake based on a literature search and data integration. The results revealed that sediment phosphorus in Dianchi Lake has been widely studied. From previous studies, the total phosphorus (TP) content and various forms of phosphorus in the Dianchi Lake sediments have decreased since 2010. The TP contents measured in Dianchi Lake in previous research were considerably different owing to the influence of sampling depth and dredging projects. The TP content in the sediments of Dianchi Lake was higher but its release risk was lower than those in other lakes in China. The risk of release was higher in Caohai and North Waihai than that in Central Waihai and South Waihai. In addition to environmental factors at the sediment–water interface, sediment characteristics, and ecosystem degradation are important factors that affect phosphorus migration and transformation. Over the past 30 years, sediment dredging has been the primary measure for reducing the internal pollution load in Dianchi Lake. However, more accurate sediment dredging and systematic vegetation–algae–sediment co-management measures are needed for water ecosystem restoration in Dianchi Lake. This study provides new insights into the study of internal phosphorus pollution.

1. Introduction

Dianchi Lake is one of the most eutrophic lakes in China. Over the last 3 decades, various comprehensive management measures have been implemented to mitigate eutrophication. These measures include intercepting and treating wastewater around the lake, remediating inflowing rivers, controlling agricultural and rural non-point source pollution, conducting ecological restoration, inter-basin water diversion, and sediment dredging. These efforts have achieved significant success in reducing external pollution loads and effectively controlling external phosphorus pollution [1]. However, eutrophication in Dianchi Lake has not been effectively controlled, as cyanobacterial blooms continue to occur annually, posing severe threats to the ecological environment and socioeconomic development. Previous studies have revealed that phosphorus in sediments is a critical factor affecting the effectiveness of external pollution control and limiting the improvement of eutrophication in Dianchi Lake. Wu et al. [2] reported that the release of sediment phosphorus has long-term impacts on lake eutrophication. Furthermore, Chen et al. [3] and Liu et al. [4] demonstrated that sediment phosphorus release significantly promotes algal growth, making it a key driver of frequent cyanobacterial blooms. Therefore, while external phosphorus pollution has been effectively controlled, a deeper understanding and effective management of internal phosphorus loads have become the primary focus in addressing lake eutrophication.
Phosphorus in the sediments of Dianchi Lake has attracted significant attention from researchers [5,6]. Hu et al. [7] found that the concentrations of TP, weakly adsorbed phosphorus (NH4Cl-P), and organic phosphorus (NaOH-nrP) in sediments are closely correlated with the amount of cyanobacterial blooms in Dianchi Lake. Chen et al. [8] reported that the TP concentration in Caohai sediments was 7-fold higher than that in Wahai sediments, highlighting the significant spatial variability in phosphorus pollution across different regions of the lake. Jin et al. [9] revealed that the primary phosphorus species in Dianchi Lake sediments include iron-bound phosphorus (BD-P), NaOH-nrP, aluminum-bound phosphorus (NaOH-rP), and calcium-bound phosphorus (HCl-P), and emphasized the critical role of these phosphorus species in the eutrophication process of Dianchi Lake. In general, previous studies emphasized that the characteristics of phosphorus speciation and its release mechanisms were intrinsically linked to managing internal pollution in Dianchi Lake.
Although significant progress has been made in existing studies, there are several limitations and gaps. Firstly, most previous studies focused on discussions of specific topics, lacking systematic analyses based on bibliometric methods, hindering a comprehensive understanding of the current state of research and future directions. Secondly, the research findings on phosphorus pollution in Dianchi Lake sediments exhibit significant differences in spatial distribution, phosphorus speciation, and release risks due to substantial variations in sampling times, locations, and methods among studies, impeding the systematic identification of overarching patterns. Last but not least, previous studies did not effectively emphasize the systematic aspects and prospects of remediation strategies but reviewed traditional approaches, such as sediment dredging, and lacked comprehensive analyses integrating internal phosphorus control with ecosystem restoration.
This study systematically synthesizes previous research to reveal the overall patterns of phosphorus pollution in Dianchi Lake sediments, quantitatively analyzes research hotspots and trends, and proposes novel strategies for internal phosphorus control. The aim is to provide a comprehensive summary that enhances the understanding of phosphorus pollution in the lake’s sediments and offers a reference for managing internal phosphorus pollution.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

Dianchi Lake (24°40′–25°02′ N, 102°36′–103°40′ E) is the sixth-largest freshwater lake in China, with a watershed area of 2920 km2, a water surface area of 310 km2, and an average depth of 5.0 m. The lake receives inflows from 35 major rivers. An artificial embankment in the northern part of the lake divides Dianchi Lake into two sections, Caohai and Waihai, accounting for 2.7% and 97.3% of the total area of the lake, respectively [10,11].
Considering its geographical characteristics and the intensity of human activity in the watershed, Dianchi Lake was divided into four zones: Caohai, North Waihai, Central Waihai, and South Waihai (Figure 1). Among these, Caohai and North Waihai are adjacent to the main urban area of Kunming and are characterized by a high population density and significant anthropogenic impacts. Central Waihai, bordering the Xishan Mountain to the west and Chenggong District to the east, has a lower population density than the main city. Contrastingly, South Waihai is adjacent to Jinning District, a region rich in phosphorus-bearing geological formations, and dominated by agricultural activities, making it highly susceptible to industrial and agricultural non-point source pollution.

2.2. Research Methods

The data used in this study were obtained from the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) database and the Web of Science Core Collection. In the CNKI database, the search terms were “Dianchi Lake” AND “sediment” AND “(phosphorus OR phosphate OR P)”. In Web of Science, the search terms used were “(Dianchi Lake OR Dian Lake OR Dianchi) AND (sediment) AND (phosphorus OR phosphate OR P)”. The search was conducted from 1 January 1990 to 31 May 2024, resulting in the retrieval of 311 articles, including 143 from CNKI and 168 from the Web of Science Core Collection.
Articles were screened by reviewing their titles and abstracts, and studies not closely related to phosphorus in Dianchi Lake sediments were excluded. Duplicate articles were removed. Consequently, 135 articles were excluded, leaving 176 relevant articles for further analysis. The CiteSpace visualization software (version, 5.7.R5) was used to analyze research trends, including the annual number of publications, research institutions, authors, and keywords. The analysis utilized a time slicing interval of 1 year, node selection based on frequent keywords and highly cited references (threshold: 20 citations), and the Log-likelihood Ratio (LLR) clustering algorithm to identify key research trends and thematic clusters.
Additionally, monitoring data from the literature were systematically integrated to identify phosphorus speciation characteristics in Dianchi Lake sediments. The content of TP, speciation of phosphorus, and adsorption and release characteristics of phosphorus in Dianchi Lake sediments were compared with those of other lakes in China. Phosphorus in sediments exists in various forms and is generally categorized as NH4Cl-P, BD-P, NaOH-nrP, NaOH-rP, HCl-P, or residual phosphorus (Res-P). Among these, NH4Cl-P, BD-P, and NaOH-nrP are easily released into the overlying water and are referred to as mobile phosphorus. Contrastingly, NaOH-rP, HCl-P, and Res-P are immobile phosphorus forms because they are partially released under specific environmental conditions [12].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Trends in Research on Phosphorus in Dianchi Lake Sediments

3.1.1. Analysis of Research Trends

The research trends on phosphorus in Dianchi Lake sediments showed a dynamic progression, transitioning from a slow initial phase to rapid growth, followed by a focus on quality improvement (Figure 2a).
Prior to 2000, limited research addressed phosphorus in Dianchi Lake sediments, evidenced by an average annual publication rate of only one article. From 2001 to 2005, the number of publications increased gradually, reaching 14 in 2005. This growth coincides with the designation of Dianchi Lake as one of the “Three Rivers and Three Lakes” prioritized for remediation in China, increasing studies on eutrophication in the lake.
Between 2005 and 2016, the number of annual publications increased, peaking in 2015 and 2016 with an average annual publication of 24. This surge was largely driven by the implementation of major national water projects during the “11th Five-Year Plan” and “12th Five-Year Plan” periods. Notably, the project titled “Research and Engineering Demonstration of Load Control and Comprehensive Water Quality Improvement in Dianchi Lake”, launched in 2012 by the Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, provided substantial funding and experimental data, significantly increasing the research output.
After 2016, the number of publications decreased due to reduced research funding for Dianchi Lake-specific projects and a shift in focus from monitoring and surveys to mechanistic studies. Consequently, the quality and depth of research improved. As a result, the proportion of publications in core journals and indexed by the Science Citation Index has increased significantly, with research topics increasingly concentrating on phosphorus migration, transformation mechanisms, and its ecological effects.

3.1.2. Analysis of Research Institutions and Authors

The results revealed that the Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences ranks first with 42 publications, highlighting its leading role in research on Dianchi Lake (Figure 2b). This was followed by institutions, such as the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Peking University, Beijing Normal University, Nanjing Normal University, and Yunnan University, each contributing to >12 publications. These universities and research institutions have advanced the study of phosphorus in Dianchi Lake sediments through interdisciplinary collaboration.
Among the prominent researchers, Jiao Lixin and Wang Shengrui from the Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Yang Hao from the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and Liu Yong from Peking University published multiple papers on the subject (Figure 2c), making significant contributions to understanding the characteristics of internal phosphorus pollution, its migration and transformation mechanisms, and remediation technologies in Dianchi Lake, providing essential scientific support for the management and restoration of the lake.

3.1.3. Analysis of Research Hotspots

The results of the keyword cluster analysis revealed that the top six keywords related to phosphorus in Dianchi Lake sediments were eutrophication, release, distribution, adsorption, and phosphorus formation and deposition (Figure 2d).
Eutrophication, as the core issue in Dianchi Lake, has remained a central research focus, particularly emphasizing the impact of internal phosphorus on cyanobacterial blooms. Research on phosphorus release primarily investigates the driving factors and mechanisms of phosphorus migration from sediments to the overlying water, and these studies considered numerous environmental conditions, such as redox states, pH, and sediment characteristics. The phosphorus spatial distribution and its adsorption/desorption behavior have gained increasing attention in recent years, providing crucial insights into internal phosphorus loads and their potential risks. Studies on phosphorus forms have focused on the speciation of phosphorus in Dianchi Lake sediments to elucidate its roles in the migration and transformation processes. Research on phosphorus deposition characteristics explores the physical and chemical properties of sediments, which are closely associated with phosphorus storage, release, and transformation.
These research hotspots highlight the systematic and complex nature of phosphorus studies in Dianchi Lake sediments, indicating a gradual shift in focus from descriptive studies of phenomena to a comprehensive exploration of the underlying mechanisms.

3.2. Phosphorus Speciation Characteristics in Dianchi Lake Sediments

Evaluating the eutrophication risk of lakes requires determining the TP content in sediments and analyzing the concentrations and distribution characteristics of various phosphorus species [13]. The extraction of phosphorus species from Dianchi Lake sediments predominantly utilizes an internationally recognized modified Psenner sequential extraction method. The TP and concentration of each phosphorus species are typically measured using the molybdenum–antimony anti-spectrophotometric method [14,15]. In the literature reviewed in this study, the extraction and measurement methods for phosphorus species were consistent across studies, ensuring the comparability of results [3,5,6,7,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41].

3.2.1. Temporal and Spatial Distribution of TP Content

The average TP content in Dianchi Lake increased between 2000 and 2010 (Figure 3a), owing to rapid urbanization and industrialization and significantly increasing wastewater discharge. The lagging construction of pollution control facilities increased the large amounts of untreated industrial and domestic wastewater directly entering the lake. However, after 2010, the TP levels began to decline, consistent with the trend in TP concentration [42], indicating the effectiveness of pollution control measures, including sewage interception, comprehensive watershed management, and sediment dredging projects, implemented during the “Ninth Five-Year Plan” to “Eleventh Five-Year Plan” periods.
Significant spatial variations in the TP content were observed across different regions of Dianchi Lake. The average TP concentrations in the sediments of Caohai, North Waihai, Central Waihai, and South Waihai were 2574.68, 1606.45, 1483.39, and 2457.77 mg/kg, respectively (Figure 3b). The higher TP contents in Caohai and South Waihai than those in other regions can be attributed to specific regional characteristics. Caohai, located downstream of the densely populated Kunming urban area, receives substantial industrial and domestic wastewater. Although sediment dredging has been conducted in Caohai, persistent wastewater inflow exacerbates sediment pollution. South Waihai, situated in a geological phosphorus-rich area, was heavily affected by large-scale phosphorus mining and phosphate processing activities, with runoff carrying phosphorus-rich materials into the lake. Contrastingly, Central Waihai, with relatively minimal human disturbance, exhibited lower TP levels than those of the other regions. The North Waihai region exhibited improved TP pollution control after implementation of sediment dredging projects.
Notably, significant differences in TP contents have been reported across different studies for the same time period or region, with variations in sampling methods contributing to these discrepancies. Common sediment sampling methods include grab and core sampling. Grab samplers often collect more than surface sediments, resulting in uneven sampling, whereas core samplers allow for stratified collection, ensuring that surface sediment samples are obtained. Inconsistencies in the sampling tools used by different researchers may have led to variations in the results [43]. Furthermore, dredging activities influenced TP levels. Jing et al. [44] reported that dredging can enhance the release of Fe, leading to lower BD-P and NaOH-rP concentrations in dredged areas than those in undredged areas. Since 1998, dredging projects have been conducted in Caohai, as well as major river inlets and areas where algae accumulated in Waihai, which likely contributed to the lower TP measurements in dredged zones than those in undredged zones.
A confidence analysis was performed on the integrated TP data to establish an appropriate range of TP concentrations in the Dianchi Lake sediments. The analysis established an optimal TP range of 1585.73–2663.00 mg/kg, with an average concentration of 2099.56 mg/kg (Figure 3c).

3.2.2. Temporal and Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Phosphorus Speciation

Between 2000 and 2010, the concentrations of all phosphorus species in Dianchi Lake sediments exhibited an increasing trend but gradually declined after 2010 (Figure 4a), consistent with the changes in TP content, indicating that the comprehensive remediation measures implemented in Dianchi Lake achieved significant success in reducing phosphorus loads in the sediments. NaOH-rP was dominant in the sediments from Caohai, whereas those from Waihai were primarily composed of HCl-P. The order of phosphorus species in the Caohai sediments was NaOH-rP > HCl-P > BD-P > Res-P > NaOH-nrP > NH4Cl-P, while that in the Waihai sediments was HCl-P > NaOH-rP > Res-P > BD-P > NaOH-nrP > NH4Cl-P (Figure 4b).
Among all phosphorus species, NH4Cl-P had the lowest concentration, accounting for <1% of the TP. Mobile phosphorus species (NH4Cl-P, BD-P, and NaOH-nrP) were mainly concentrated in Caohai and North Waihai, exhibiting a decreasing trend from north to south. Contrastingly, immobile phosphorus species (HCl-P, NaOH-rP, and Res-P) were predominantly distributed in the southern and central parts of Waihai, with relatively lower concentrations in Caohai and North Waihai than those in other regions.

3.2.3. Phosphorus Vertical Distribution Characteristics

The vertical distribution of phosphorus in the sediment profiles reflects the historical deposition of phosphorus and the outcomes of various transformation processes. Sediment cores from Dianchi Lake were divided into three segments: 0–5, 5–10, and 10–20 cm. The result showed that the TP content in Dianchi Lake sediments generally decreased with depth. The TP concentration in the 0–5 cm layer ranged from 1696.72 to 3650.12 mg/kg, with an average value of 2373.19 mg/kg (Figure 5). In the 5–10 cm layer, TP concentrations ranged from 1629.00 to 2373.00 mg/kg, averaging 1983.53 mg/kg. The 10–20 cm layer had TP concentrations ranging from 1453.00 to 2251.42 mg/kg, averaging 1816.48 mg/kg. The higher TP content in the surface sediments (0–5 cm) indicates the greater potential for phosphorus release into the overlying water.

3.2.4. Comparison of Dianchi Lake and Other Lakes in China

This study compared Dianchi Lake with Erhai, Yangzonghai, Taihu, and Chaohu Lakes, all of which face similar challenges with phosphorus pollution and eutrophication. Dianchi, Taihu, and Chaohu have been key targets in China’s pollution control efforts since 1995 [45], while Erhai and Yangzonghai are significant plateau lakes in Yunnan Province [46]. A comparative analysis was conducted on the TP content and phosphorus forms in the sediments of these lakes. To ensure the reliability of the findings, the data from the cited literature primarily covers the period from 2015 to 2017, as this period represents the most extensive research on phosphorus in the sediments of Dianchi Lake. Additionally, all phosphorus form extraction methods used were continuous extraction techniques. The TP content in Dianchi Lake sediments was 2.17-, 3.18-, 3.69-, and 2.87-fold higher than that in Erhai, Taihu, Chaohu, and Yangzonghai, respectively (Table 1), suggesting that the accumulation of phosphorus in Dianchi Lake sediments was more severe. The differences in phosphorus speciation and proportions among these lakes can be attributed to external pollution characteristics, trophic states, environmental conditions, sediment composition, and diagenetic processes [18].
In all the aforementioned lakes, the proportion of immobile phosphorus was higher than that of mobile phosphorus. Specifically, the proportions of immobile HCl-P in the sediments of Dianchi Lake, Erhai, and Yangzonghai were much higher than those in Taihu and Chaohu. The high levels of HCl-P in Dianchi Lake can be attributed to terrestrial inputs from detrital rocks, authigenic apatite, and the application of manure fertilizers during agricultural activities. The southern part of Dianchi Lake, adjacent to Jinning District, is a phosphorus-rich mining area with intensive agricultural activity. Similarly, Erhai Lake, a carbonate-based lake, receives 51% of its inflow from the Miju River, which flows through the densely populated areas with intensive agricultural activities in Eryuan County. The northern part of Yangzonghai, particularly around Tangchi Town, is characterized by concentrated farmland [47].
HCl-P is relatively stable and can be released only under acidic conditions. The pH levels in Dianchi Lake, Erhai, and Yangzonghai consistently ranged between 8 and 9, which hindered the release of HCl-P from the sediments. Contrastingly, Taihu and Chaohu, which are surrounded by rapidly developing urban and industrial areas, such as Wuxi and Suzhou, are more affected by wind-driven sediment resuspension because they have shallower waters, leading to greater phosphorus release into the overlying water [48,49].
For mobile phosphorus species, BD-P accounted for the highest proportion among all lakes. The lakes with the highest BD-P proportions were Chaohu, Erhai, and Taihu. Contrastingly, the proportion of BD-P in the Dianchi Lake sediments was relatively low, similar to that in Yangzonghai. This is likely because the severe eutrophication in Caohai and North Waihai resulted in low dissolved oxygen concentrations. Similarly, Yangzonghai, with its greater depth, also had reduced dissolved oxygen levels at the sediment–water interface. Under anoxic conditions, Fe3+ is readily converted to Fe2+, facilitating the release of BD-P from sediments. Moreover, the frequency and severity of algal blooms in Dianchi Lake exceeded those in Taihu and Chaohu. Cyanobacterial blooms reduce the redox potential in the water column, and low redox conditions promote the release of mobile phosphorus, particularly BD-P, from sediments [50].
Table 1. Comparison of the TP content and phosphorus form in the sediments of Dianchi Lake and those of other lakes.
Table 1. Comparison of the TP content and phosphorus form in the sediments of Dianchi Lake and those of other lakes.
Index/(mg/kg)DianchiErhaiYangzonghaiTaihuChaohu
TP2099.56967.59731.29660.30569.25
NH4Cl-P7.382.731.206.201.08
BD-P198.01221.3761.1586.30124.98
NaOH-rp567.92169.68203.4398.60240.59
NaOH-nrp158.9546.1829.2913.5022.04
HCl-P852.33339.35188.7855.00125.29
Res-P314.97188.28247.44400.7055.27
ReferencesThis research[51,52][53][54][55]

3.3. Phosphorus Adsorption and Release Characteristics in Dianchi Lake Sediments

Sediments act as a “sink” for phosphorus pollution and a “source” of phosphorus pollution in the lake water. Understanding the phosphorus adsorption and release characteristics in sediments is crucial for explaining lake water quality dynamics and developing targeted remediation strategies. The adsorption and release behavior of phosphorus is often characterized by the equilibrium phosphorus concentration (EPC0). When the phosphorus concentration in the water exceeds the EPC0 of the sediment, phosphorus is adsorbed by the sediment; conversely, when the concentration is lower than the EPC0, phosphorus is released from the sediment. A higher EPC0 indicates a greater risk of phosphorus release [56].

3.3.1. Phosphorus Adsorption and Release Characteristics

The phosphorus adsorption and release characteristics in Dianchi Lake sediments, along with a comparison to other lakes in China, are presented in Table 2. The sediments of Dianchi Lake exhibited significantly higher maximum adsorption rates and adsorption capacities than those of other lakes, indicating a stronger ability to adsorb phosphorus from water. Conversely, the maximum release rates, release capacities, and EPC0 values of Dianchi Lake sediments were relatively low, suggesting a lower risk of phosphorus release and a more pronounced net adsorption effect.
From a spatial perspective, the sediments in Caohai and North Waihai had lower maximum adsorption rates and adsorption capacities but higher maximum release rates and capacities and EPC0 values than those of other regions, indicating a higher risk of phosphorus release in these areas than those in the central and southern parts of Waihai. Contrastingly, sediments in central and southern Waihai exhibited lower phosphorus release risks owing to reduced anthropogenic disturbances and more stable sediment structures. The spatial differences were closely associated with environmental conditions, external pollution characteristics, and the physical and chemical properties of the sediments.
Currently, scholars primarily investigate the release risk of phosphorus in the sediments of Dianchi Lake through experiments on the release kinetics at the sediment–water interface. Additionally, long-term water quality data analysis and phosphorus morphology analysis are commonly employed [14,15,19,21,24,25,36,37,38]. Despite the lack of unified cross-regional and cross-seasonal in situ data, research findings indicate that although the TP concentration in Dianchi Lake sediments is relatively high, the release risk remains low. However, this conclusion is based on available experimental data, and the absence of comprehensive in situ monitoring across different regions and seasons remains a limitation that should be addressed in future research.

3.3.2. Research Methods for Phosphorus Adsorption and Release

Early studies on phosphorus adsorption and release characteristics in sediments were primarily conducted in laboratory settings. Classic methods included adsorption isotherm analyses, kinetic model fitting, and release kinetics experiments. Commonly used adsorption isotherm models included the Langmuir, Freundlich, and Temkin models, with the Langmuir and Freundlich models widely applied in studies on sediment phosphorus adsorption behavior [61]. Kinetic models, such as the first-order kinetic model, second-order kinetic model, and Elovich equation, were often used to simulate the adsorption rates and mechanisms of phosphorus in sediments [62].
With the advancement of research and analytical technologies, new techniques have been introduced to study phosphorus adsorption and release characteristics. For instance, the diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) technique allows in situ monitoring of the dynamic migration processes of phosphorus at the sediment–water interface and quantitatively measuring phosphorus release fluxes at different sediment depths [63]. Isotope tracing technology enables quantifying phosphorus migration rates between water and sediments and identifying key mechanisms driving phosphorus adsorption and release [64]. Furthermore, in situ experimental equipment and sensor technologies facilitate the continuous monitoring of environmental factors at the sediment–water interface, enabling real-time data acquisition on material exchange between sediments and overlying water, significantly enhancing the accuracy of studies on phosphorus migration and transformation processes [65]. These emerging techniques have improved the spatiotemporal resolution and dynamic analytical capabilities of sediment phosphorus studies, thereby providing new directions for research on phosphorus migration and transformation in sediments.
Despite the substantial progress made in studying phosphorus adsorption and release in Dianchi Lake sediments, the application of advanced technologies, such as DGT, isotope tracing, and in situ experimental equipment, remains limited, restricting comprehensive analysis of the dynamic migration and release mechanisms of phosphorus in sediments. The main barriers to their adoption include high costs, technical complexity, and insufficient policy support. The successful integration of these technologies requires enhanced collaboration among local governments and research institutions, along with improved policies, funding, and technical training.

3.4. Factors Influencing Phosphorus Adsorption and Release in Dianchi Lake Sediments

Understanding the factors influencing phosphorus adsorption and release in sediments and the mechanisms driving its migration and transformation is crucial for elucidating lake water quality dynamics and devising effective remediation strategies.

3.4.1. Research Progress on Factors Influencing Phosphorus Adsorption and Release

Extensive laboratory simulations have demonstrated that various environmental factors control phosphorus adsorption and release in sediments. Gao et al. [40] found that pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), and phosphorus concentrations in water influence phosphorus adsorption and release. Xie et al. [66] identified temperature as a critical factor affecting phosphorus adsorption in sediments, whereas Xue et al. [25] reported that phosphorus release increased with increasing temperature. Xia et al. [67] demonstrated that the heat treatment of Dianchi Lake sediments can enhance the redox potential and DO in surface sediments, thereby inhibiting phosphorus release.
Overall, previous studies on the factors influencing phosphorus adsorption and release in the Dianchi Lake have focused on environmental conditions at the sediment–water interface. There is a consensus that high temperatures, significant water turbulence, and low DO and redox potential promote phosphorus release from sediments. The combined effects of these environmental factors contribute to the complex dynamics of phosphorus migration in Dianchi Lake sediments. In highly polluted areas, such as Caohai and North Waihai, low redox conditions and anthropogenic disturbances may further exacerbate the risk of phosphorus release.

3.4.2. Role of Specific Environmental Factors in Phosphorus Migration and Transformation in Dianchi Lake

As a typical plateau urban lake, Dianchi Lake’s unique environment has a significant impact on the adsorption and release of phosphorus. Among various environmental factors, the most important are external inputs, phosphate mining, and the roles of aquatic plants and microorganisms.
The Caohai and North Waihai areas of Dianchi Lake, which are adjacent to the urban area in Kunming, have long been affected by the discharge of domestic sewage and industrial wastewater. Phosphorus in wastewater chemically or physically interacts with Al and Fe in sediments, forming NaOH-rP and BD-P. Among these, NaOH-rP is a stable phosphorus component in sediments, but it can undergo partial release through exchange with OH− or dissolved phosphate complexes [68]. BD-P is redox-sensitive and releases phosphorus under anaerobic conditions when Fe3+ is reduced to Fe2+, making it available for algal growth [69].
The southern shore of Dianchi Lake is rich in phosphate rock resources. During phosphate mining, detrital rocks and authigenic apatite combine with phosphorus to form HCl-P. HCl-P is not easily released and is largely unavailable for biological uptake. However, under acidic conditions, it is partially released. Given that the pH of Dianchi Lake ranges from 8 to 9, the release of HCl-P is minimal [54]. Additionally, byproducts of phosphate processing, such as phosphogypsum, contain NH4Cl-P, which can be washed into Dianchi Lake during rainfall. NH4Cl-P is relatively unstable and can be released into the overlying water under hydrodynamic disturbances, providing phosphorus for algal uptake [70,71].
The coverage of aquatic plants in Dianchi Lake was 2.4%. Organic matter from these plants contributes to NaOH-nrP formation, a humic acid-bound phosphorus, in sediments. Under specific environmental conditions, NaOH-nrP can undergo mineralization to release orthophosphate [31,72]. Additionally, the decomposition of dead aquatic plants leads to residues that bind to phosphorus to form Res-P, which is stored in sediments. Furthermore, microbial activity in Dianchi Lake, including mineralization and reactivation processes, can convert labile phosphorus species, such as BD-P and NaOH-nrP, into stable phosphorus forms like Res-P [32,73], thereby influencing the migration and transformation of phosphorus in sediments.
The migration and transformation mechanisms of phosphorus adsorption and release in the Dianchi Lake sediments are illustrated in Figure 6, highlighting the complex physical, chemical, and biological processes at the sediment–water interface.

3.4.3. Influence of Other Factors on Phosphorus Adsorption and Release

In addition to environmental factors, Wang et al. [74] indicated that the contents of dissolved organic matter (DOM), metal oxides, calcium, and clay in sediments significantly affect phosphorus adsorption, with organic matter and metal oxides exerting the most influence. The maximum phosphorus adsorption capacity of the sediments increases with increasing metal oxide content. The effect of DOM on phosphorus in sediments is dual-faceted. Anions dissociated from the carboxyl and hydroxyl groups in DOM compete with phosphate ions for adsorption sites on sediment surfaces, thereby promoting phosphorus release [75]. Contrastingly, DOM in sediments can form complexes with metals, such as Fe and Mn, to form organometallic ligands, which provide additional adsorption sites for dissolved phosphate and enhance phosphorus adsorption by sediments [66,76]. Hence, the mechanism by which DOM affects phosphorus cycling is highly complex and requires further analysis in the context of specific lake characteristics. Previous studies have shown that cyanobacterial blooms can lower the redox potential in the water column, thereby promoting phosphorus release from sediments [77,78]. Conversely, submerged aquatic plants can absorb bioavailable phosphorus as a nutrient and reduce phosphorus release from sediments. Generally, sediment characteristics (e.g., organic matter and metal oxides) and ecosystem degradation are closely related to phosphorus adsorption and release in sediments.
However, research on these aspects of the Dianchi Lake was limited. The lack of systematic data prevented the identification of key factors influencing phosphorus adsorption and release in the Dianchi sediments. Therefore, future studies should focus on the effects of sediment properties and aquatic ecosystem characteristics on the migration and transformation of P in Dianchi Lake.

3.5. Current Status and Prospects for the Management of Internal Pollution in Dianchi Lake

The TP content in the Dianchi Lake sediments was significantly higher than that in other lakes in China. However, Dianchi Lake exhibited a higher adsorption rate and maximum adsorption capacity than other lakes in China, and its phosphorus was primarily present in the stable HCl-P form, indicating a relatively low overall release risk. Nevertheless, even with substantial reductions in external phosphorus loads, cyanobacterial blooms occur annually in Dianchi Lake, suggesting that releasing internal phosphorus from sediments remains a major driver of eutrophication. Currently, the primary measure for managing the internal pollution in Dianchi Lake is sediment dredging.

3.5.1. Effectiveness and Controversies of Sediment Dredging in Dianchi Lake

Dianchi Lake is one of the first lakes in China to implement sediment dredging. The first phase of dredging in 1998 targeted polluted sediments in Caohai and resulted in noticeable improvements in water quality. Subsequent dredging projects, including the second and third phases, have expanded the dredged area to 16.01 km2, removing 12.27 million m3 of sediments. The fourth phase of dredging in Caohai and its river inlets is currently underway at the time of undertaking this study, with plans for the fifth phase of development.
Dredging has successfully reduced sediment phosphorus loads. Zhan et al. [79] found that the total nitrogen (TN) and TP contents in dredged areas are significantly lower than those in undredged areas. However, the effects of dredging on the water quality and ecosystems remain controversial. Liu et al. [80] pointed out that dredging disrupts the long-established internal balance of the lake system, significantly affecting the equilibrium of phosphorus forms in sediments. Additionally, dredging may lead to the release of stable nitrogen and phosphorus forms, converting them into labile forms, indicating substantial uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of dredging for controlling internal pollution. Jing et al. [81] reported that dredging has short-term (approximately 2 years) positive effects, including significant reductions in TN, TP, chemical oxygen demand, and phytoplankton biomass in the entire lake. However, in the absence of timely ecological restoration measures, the health of dredged areas may deteriorate compared to that of undredged areas in the long term. Huang et al. [82] demonstrated that the growth of submerged plants can shift sediments from being a source of phosphorus to a sink, thereby inhibiting phosphorus release. Therefore, sediment dredging should be coordinated with other ecological restoration measures to achieve sustainable internal pollution control.

3.5.2. Major Challenges in Sediment Management

The current challenges in sediment management in Dianchi Lake include the uncertain environmental effects of dredging, difficulties in the disposal and utilization of dredged sediments, and insufficient coordination with other ecological restoration measures. The long-term effects of dredging on water quality are unstable and may trigger the conversion of stable phosphorus forms into labile forms, thereby increasing the risk of internal phosphorus release. The large volume of dredged sediment has high treatment costs, and there is currently no unified technical standard or management framework for the safe treatment and resource utilization of dredged sediments. Moreover, the lack of timely and effective ecological restoration measures has resulted in the slow recovery of ecosystems in dredged areas, thereby limiting the effectiveness of sediment management.

3.5.3. Recommendations for Integrated Management of Internal Pollution

Retrospective studies on the environmental effects of sediment dredging are recommended to improve internal pollution management in Dianchi Lake. These studies should systematically review and analyze the impacts of dredging on sediment, water quality, and aquatic ecosystems, providing a scientific basis for the precise implementation of future dredging projects.
A comprehensive “vegetation–algae–sediment” integrated management approach should be adopted, involving systematic planning and phased implementation of integrated projects targeting algae control, sediment management, and ecological restoration. This approach simultaneously inhibits the release of pollutants from the sediments and restores damaged aquatic ecosystems.
An integrated algae–sediment strategy is recommended for Caohai and North Waihai, which have high phosphorus release risks and severe cyanobacterial accumulation. This strategy should include environmentally friendly dredging, establishing monitoring and early-warning platforms for cyanobacterial blooms, and constructing treatment stations for integrated algae–water treatment, so as to enhance the monitoring and mitigation of cyanobacterial blooms.
A vegetation–sediment integrated strategy is appropriate for areas such as Central and South Waihai, which have low phosphorus release risks, limited aquatic plant coverage, and weak natural restoration capacity. This strategy involves using ecological sediment restoration materials to control pollutant release, and aquatic vegetation restoration to enhance remediation outcomes.
Additionally, efforts should be made to strengthen the safe treatment and resource utilization of dredged sediments. Developing technical standards and management protocols for dredging and sediment utilization in Dianchi Lake will facilitate the sustainable reuse of sediments in fields such as land utilization and utilization of building materials, thereby improving the efficiency and sustainability of sediment management.

4. Conclusions

This study systematically reviewed research on phosphorus in Dianchi Lake sediments and conducted a comprehensive analysis from five perspectives: research trends, phosphorus speciation characteristics, adsorption and release mechanisms, influencing factors, and current status and prospects of internal pollution management. The findings revealed that the study of phosphorus in Dianchi Lake sediments has received extensive attention, with research hotspots focusing on eutrophication, release, distribution, adsorption, and phosphorus formation and deposition. Although the TP content in the Dianchi sediments was higher than that in other lakes in China, the predominant phosphorus form was the relatively stable HCl-P, suggesting a low release risk. However, Caohai and North Waihai exhibited higher phosphorus release risks than those of other regions and require particular attention. The release of internal phosphorus remains the primary driver of cyanobacterial blooms in Dianchi Lake, regardless of the effective control of external phosphorus pollution. Environmental factors such as pH, DO, temperature, and redox potential, along with sediment characteristics like organic matter and metal oxide content, as well as the overall ecosystem condition, influence phosphorus adsorption and release in sediments. Since 1998, multiple rounds of sediment dredging have been implemented in Dianchi Lake to reduce sediment phosphorus loads. However, several challenges prevail, including uncertainties regarding the environmental effects of dredging, difficulties in the disposal and utilization of dredged sediments, and insufficient coordination with other ecological restoration measures.
Through data integration and comparative analysis, the study revealed the spatiotemporal dynamics of phosphorus pollution in Dianchi Lake sediments, the mechanisms of adsorption and release, and the effectiveness and limitations of management measures. Theoretically, it highlights the influence of external inputs, diagenesis, and ecosystem conditions on phosphorus migration and transformation, providing new insights into the study of internal phosphorus pollution. Practically, this study proposes a vegetation–algae–sediment integrated management strategy with zonal and phased implementation, offering a scientific basis for managing internal phosphorus pollution in Dianchi Lake and other eutrophic lakes. Nevertheless, the study has some limitations, including regional differences in data integration, a broad time span, and inconsistencies in measurement methods across studies, which may affect the uniformity of the results. In addition, phosphorus control factors are complex. Although we have analyzed factors influencing phosphorus variation in Dianchi Lake sediments, further systematic studies are needed to better understand their impact on phosphorus dynamics, ultimately enabling more precise pollution control strategies.
Based on the findings and limitations of this study, it is suggested that future research should focus on the following aspects: conducting long-term monitoring of phosphorus migration and transformation in Dianchi Lake sediments to improve the integration of regional and temporal dynamic data; incorporating advanced technologies, such as DGT, isotope tracing, and in situ monitoring equipment; enhancing the analytical capacity for understanding phosphorus migration and release dynamics at the sediment–water interface; and strengthening the integration of algae control, sediment management, and ecological restoration efforts to achieve the dual goals of improving water quality and restoring the ecosystem of the lake.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, X.W. and R.Z.; methodology, X.W. and Y.W.; software, Y.W.; formal analysis, Y.C.; resources, Z.H.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.W. and Y.C.; writing—review and editing, X.W.; supervision, L.J.; funding acquisition, L.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was jointly supported by the National Major Science and Technology Program for Water Pollution Control and Treatment (No. 2012ZX07102-004) and Cultivating Plan Program for the Leader in Science and Technology of Yunnan Province (202305AD160060).

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Zhengzheng Hao was employed by the company Yunnan Dianwei Environmental Protection Technology Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Zoning map of the Dianchi Lake basin.
Figure 1. Zoning map of the Dianchi Lake basin.
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Figure 2. (a) Annual publication trends, (b) distribution of research institutions, (c) author analysis, and (d) keyword cluster of studies on phosphorus in the sediments of Dianchi Lake.
Figure 2. (a) Annual publication trends, (b) distribution of research institutions, (c) author analysis, and (d) keyword cluster of studies on phosphorus in the sediments of Dianchi Lake.
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Figure 3. (a) Temporal variation, (b) spatial variation, and (c) confidence interval of TP in the sediments of Dianchi Lake.
Figure 3. (a) Temporal variation, (b) spatial variation, and (c) confidence interval of TP in the sediments of Dianchi Lake.
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Figure 4. (a) Temporal gradient and (b) spatial distribution of P fractions in Dianchi Lake sediments.
Figure 4. (a) Temporal gradient and (b) spatial distribution of P fractions in Dianchi Lake sediments.
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Figure 5. Vertical distribution of TP in sediments of Dianchi Lake.
Figure 5. Vertical distribution of TP in sediments of Dianchi Lake.
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Figure 6. Schematic diagram of phosphorus adsorption and release mechanism in Dianchi Lake sediments [31,32,54,68,69,70,71,72,73].
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of phosphorus adsorption and release mechanism in Dianchi Lake sediments [31,32,54,68,69,70,71,72,73].
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Table 2. Comparison of phosphorus adsorption and release from the sediments of Dianchi Lake and those of other lakes.
Table 2. Comparison of phosphorus adsorption and release from the sediments of Dianchi Lake and those of other lakes.
LakeLocationSeasonsMaximum Adsorption Rate
mg·(kg·h)−1		Maximal
Adsorption Capacity
mg/kg		Maximum
Release Rate mg·(kg·h)−1		Maximum Release
Capacity
mg/kg		EPC0
mg/L		References
DianchiCaohaiSummer729.291180.852.223.320.02[11,13,24,36]
North Waihai852.452011.902.472.830.05
Central Waihai1028.892032.890.490.990.02
South Waihai903.445639.240.951.430.01
Taihu/Winter/76.421.15488.530.07[56]
Poyanghu/Winter/87.720.24590.00/[57]
Chaohu/Summer/59.75//0.25[58]
Erhai/Winter////0.18[59]
Wulihu///798.30//0.14[60]
East Taihu///307.70//0.04
Gonghu///321.8//0.03
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Wu, X.; Wang, Y.; Chang, Y.; Hao, Z.; Jiao, L.; Zhang, R. Research Progress on the Occurrence, Adsorption, and Release of Phosphorus in the Sediments of Dianchi Lake and Prospects for Its Control. Water 2025, 17, 1652. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111652

AMA Style

Wu X, Wang Y, Chang Y, Hao Z, Jiao L, Zhang R. Research Progress on the Occurrence, Adsorption, and Release of Phosphorus in the Sediments of Dianchi Lake and Prospects for Its Control. Water. 2025; 17(11):1652. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111652

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wu, Xue, Yancai Wang, Yirong Chang, Zhengzheng Hao, Lixin Jiao, and Rui Zhang. 2025. "Research Progress on the Occurrence, Adsorption, and Release of Phosphorus in the Sediments of Dianchi Lake and Prospects for Its Control" Water 17, no. 11: 1652. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111652

APA Style

Wu, X., Wang, Y., Chang, Y., Hao, Z., Jiao, L., & Zhang, R. (2025). Research Progress on the Occurrence, Adsorption, and Release of Phosphorus in the Sediments of Dianchi Lake and Prospects for Its Control. Water, 17(11), 1652. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111652

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