Abstract
Groundwater quality deterioration due to anthropogenic natural activities and its immense utilization in various sectors is considered a great concern. The aim of this study is to determine the groundwater quality parameters at various sources in and around Dhaka city and compare them with Bangladesh drinking water standards. In this study, six groundwater quality parameters (pH, DO, COD, TS, TDS, and arsenic) and ten groundwater samples are analyzed to determine the water quality. The collected samples have maximum and minimum pH values of 6.9 and 6.4, respectively. Maximum and minimum DO values are 0.3 and 0.1 mg/L, respectively. The arsenic concentration is 0 mg/L for all collected groundwater samples. The maximum and minimum COD values are 0.3 and 0.1 mg/L, respectively. The maximum and minimum TS values are 4 and 1 mg/L, respectively. The obtained values are then compared with the Bangladesh drinking water quality standards. Finally, the water quality index (WQI) values are calculated to determine the suitable uses of groundwater in and around Dhaka city. Based on WQI values, the groundwater quality is excellent in the study area.
1. Introduction
Usable water is limited but quite necessary for all living beings in the world. In the seas and in ice caps and glaciers, about 97 and 2% of the earth’s water are reserved, respectively. However, the saline/salty water is quite unusable for drinking and even irrigation unless treated. In the atmosphere, only about 0.001% of total water is available [1,2,3,4]. It is important to conserve water by managing water resources properly and by using available water wisely. People should think about sustainable water use without diminishing the available water resources [5]. Water is an important component in environmental and water-related activities in all countries, such as maritime shipping, embankments, seaports, dams, and inland waterways.
Human activities and natural phenomena affect groundwater in terms of quality and quantity [6]. It is a big concern nowadays as usable water shortage is increasing day by day. In many places of the world, people cannot obtain enough water to wash their dishes, so they use various sands to wash and clean utensils.
Groundwater’s physicochemical and microbiological characteristics reveal how safe drinking water is, and its examination is crucial for research on public health and pollution. The purpose of collecting representative samples of groundwater is to identify basic scientific knowledge about the parameters for a particular water usage. Groundwater quality must be determined regularly because it is neither uniform nor equal. The measurement of water parameters is used to describe the water’s quality [7,8]. Various kinds of water quality parameters, such as physicochemical parameters, hazardous compounds, and microbiological parameters, can be determined to know their nature and potential impact.
User perception is one of the most significant factors when it comes to drinking water quality. The perception of drinking water quality is influenced by a variety of elements such as odor, taste, and color, and taste is especially significant since it may identify chemical contamination of the water. In drinking water, concentrations of metals, which impact taste and affect public health, should be monitored regularly [9]. pH and alkalinity play important roles in groundwater quality [10]. The water is viewed as being of poor quality when it turns yellow in color. People only depend on groundwater for drinking even though it is slightly alkaline and moderately hard in Nanganur, South India [11].
When people experience health issues brought on by water, they may perceive hazards [12,13]. There are no globally recognized and agreed international standards for drinking water, despite the fact that every human on earth needs access to clean drinking water to survive and that water can include a variety of dangerous contaminants. Even in cases when standards are present and being followed, the permissible concentration of each ingredient may differ by up to ten times between different sets of criteria [14].
The application of the water quality index (WQI), which depends on some water quality parameters, has great potential and is a useful tool in any region. In Malaysia, surface water quality was classified using WQI, which comprises six water quality parameters, e.g., pH, BOD, DO, COD, SS, and ammoniacal nitrogen (AN) [15,16].
Groundwater quantity and quality modeling is very important for sustainable uses of groundwater aquifers. Moreover, an estimation of the WQI of groundwater is quite necessary to realize the present condition. The groundwater quality such as poor, good, and excellent can be classified by WQI values [17]. Due to the agricultural effect and the infiltration of rainwater, ion concentrations are increased as indicated by WQI values at the Tefenni plain in Burdur, Turkey [18]. In Nanganur, South India, about 86% of groundwater samples are of poor quality for drinking, as indicated by a WQI value of 153 [11].
Mahmud et al. [19] assessed the groundwater quality in terms of WQI for drinking purposes in Khulna city of Bangladesh by using the procedure derived by Horton [20]. Akter et al. [21] investigated the groundwater quality parameters in rural areas (24 randomly selected upazilas) of Bangladesh, such as pH, salinity, Mn, As, and Fe. They found that 33% of collected groundwater samples had good-quality water for drinking purposes based on the WQI.
In Dhaka, groundwater quality has not been fully studied yet by using WQI. Therefore, the specific objectives of this study are to determine the groundwater quality parameters at various sources in and around Dhaka city, compare them with Bangladesh drinking water standards, and determine the WQI of groundwater for suitable uses. A huge quantity of groundwater is withdrawn daily for various purposes in Bangladesh, e.g., irrigation, industrial, and domestic uses. Therefore, the groundwater quality should be monitored regularly.
2. Methods
2.1. Study Area
Since the research was carried out on groundwater located in the Uttara and Gazipur areas (in and around Dhaka city, Bangladesh), all the groundwater samples were taken carefully, where stations were about 5 km apart from each other. The study was carried out in Uttara and Gazipur of Bangladesh on the basis of water demand for the increasing rate of pollution and providing water for drinking purposes. To understand the pollution problem and to arrive at a planning solution to alleviate the problem, the following procedure was applied in completing the study.
2.2. Sample Collection
Groundwater samples were collected from ten different locations in Uttara (Sectors 4, 10, 11, and 12, Diyabari and Khalpar) and Gazipur. Before collecting water samples, the plastic bottles were washed thoroughly using pure water. The bottles were almost completely filled with sample groundwater and, for ease of identification, each bottle was marked by a marker. The samples were collected from 19 to 21 October (9.00 AM–2.00 PM) from Uttara and Gazipur (Table 1 and Figure 1). The samples were collected mostly from the residential areas in and around Dhaka city. A location in the Gazipur area and nine locations in the northern part of Dhaka were selected due to time constraints.
Table 1.
Details of groundwater sample collection.
Figure 1.
Locations of groundwater sample collection (starred marked) in and around Dhaka city (adapted from Google Maps).
2.3. Data Collection
A few parameters were tested in the laboratory, such as pH, DO, COD, TS, TDS, and arsenic. DO, pH, arsenic, COD, TS, and TDS are measured by a DO meter (Lutron Electronic Enterprise Co., Ltd., Taiwan), pH meter (Hanna Instruments, Cluj, Romania), arsenic test kit, chemical analysis (titration), oven dry method, and filtration and drying method, respectively, according to standard methods. Then, the obtained results were analyzed and compared with the Bangladesh drinking water standards according to ECR [22].
2.4. WQI Calculation
The calculation of WQI was carried out in this study according to Horton [20]. The whole calculation was divided into three stages: (i) calculation of unit weight of water quality parameters, (ii) calculation of quality rating of water quality parameters, and (iii) calculation of water quality indices.
2.4.1. Calculation of Unit Weight
Equation (1) shows the calculation of the unit weight (Wn).
where Sn is the standard permissible value of a water quality parameter. Equation (2) shows the calculation of the constant of proportionality (k).
Wn = k/Sn
k = 1/Σ(1/Sn)
2.4.2. Calculation of Quality Rating
Equation (3) shows the calculation of the quality rating (qn).
where Vn is the estimated value of the nth water quality parameter. Vid is the ideal value for the nth parameter in distilled water (Vid for pH = 7 and 0 for all other parameters).
qn = (Vn − Vid)100/(Sn − Vid)
2.4.3. Formula of WQI
Equation (4) shows the calculation of the WQI.
WQI = ∑qnWn/∑Wn
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Groundwater Quality Parameters
For the purpose of WQI calculation in the study area, six water quality parameters were selected. The higher values of these parameters would increase the WQI value.
Figure 2 shows the pH values of groundwater where the highest pH value was 6.9 and the lowest value was 6.4. The pH values of drinking water quality standards in Bangladesh according to ECR [22] range from 6.5 to 8.5. According to Huq and Hossain [23], the pH in groundwater ranges from 5.8 to 7.9 in Dhaka city (Zone 6), which is close to the findings of the present study. Figure 3 shows the COD values of groundwater where the highest COD value was 0.3 ppm and the lowest value was 0.1 ppm. In Bangladesh, the allowable limit of COD value is 4 ppm according to ECR [22]. It shows that all the tested parameters are within the limit of Bangladesh drinking water standards.
Figure 2.
pH values of groundwater at various locations in Dhaka.
Figure 3.
COD values of groundwater at various locations in Dhaka.
Figure 4 shows the TS values of groundwater where the highest TS value was 4 ppm and the lowest value was 1 ppm. In Bangladesh, the allowable limit of TS value is 1010 ppm according to ECR [22]. According to Huq and Hossain [23], the TS in groundwater ranges from 5.09 to 9.08 in Dhaka city (Zone 6), which is slightly different from the findings of the present study. Figure 5 shows the TDS values of groundwater where the highest TDS value was 0.3 ppm and the lowest value was 0.1 ppm. In Bangladesh, the allowable limit of TDS value is 1000 ppm according to ECR [22]. The TDS in groundwater ranges from 5.0 to 9.03 in Dhaka city (Zone 6), which is different from the findings of the present study (Huq and Hossain [23]). Therefore, to obtain accurate concentrations of groundwater quality parameters and the latest scenario, further studies are suggested. Figure 6 shows the DO values of groundwater where the highest DO value was 0.3 ppm and the lowest value was about 0.1 ppm. In Bangladesh, the allowable limit of DO value is 6 ppm according to ECR [22]. It shows that all the tested parameters are within the limit of Bangladesh drinking water standards. The arsenic concentration is 0 ppm for all collected groundwater samples, whereas in Bangladesh, the allowable limit of arsenic value is 0.05 ppm according to ECR [22].
Figure 4.
TS values of groundwater at various locations in Dhaka.
Figure 5.
TDS values of groundwater at various locations in Dhaka.
Figure 6.
DO values of groundwater at various locations in Dhaka.
3.2. Unit Weight of Water Quality Parameters
In Table 2, the values of the constant of proportionality (k) and unit weight (Wn) were calculated according to formulae mentioned in the methodology section. The drinking water quality standards (Sn) in Bangladesh according to ECR [22] are shown to calculate k and Wn values, where the highest range of pH is taken. The summation of Wn values for a groundwater sample is 1. Wn values of groundwater quality parameters are required to calculate the WQI values of all groundwater samples.
Table 2.
Unit weights and standard values of groundwater quality parameters to calculate WQI of groundwater samples.
3.3. WQI of Groundwater Samples
Table 3 shows two sample data sets of the WQI values out of 10 groundwater samples including the observed values, standard values, ideal values, unit weights, and quality rating of different water quality parameters (details in Appendix A). The ideal values of the parameters are the values of water quality parameters in distilled water. It shows that all the tested parameters are within the limit of Bangladesh drinking water standards.
Table 3.
WQI values of groundwater samples.
In Table 4, the WQI values of ten groundwater samples are summarized. The average WQI value is 0.211. The water quality status based on WQI values of S1–S10 samples is shown in Table 5. The status is excellent, and the possible uses are drinking, irrigation, and industrial purposes.
Table 4.
Summary of WQI values at various locations in Dhaka using the data of present study.
Table 5.
Water quality status based on WQI values (Horton [20]).
In the Dhaka megacity, Sharmin et al. [24] investigated groundwater quality (47 groundwater samples) and provided an overview of the WQI of groundwater. The majority of the collected samples were categorized as “Excellent and Good”. These are appropriate for any purpose (such as drinking, irrigation, and domestic) without posing any health risks to the public. The result of the present study is in line with it. They conducted a comprehensive study on groundwater in Dhaka; however, they did not consider microbiological parameters.
Huq and Hossain [23] assessed the groundwater quality parameters of Zone 6 in Dhaka city. They tested nine groundwater quality parameters such as pH, color, turbidity, TS, TDS, TSS, hardness, chloride, and iron. However, the microbiological parameters were not tested, and WQI values were not calculated. The WQI values are calculated in the present study by using the reported data (i.e., groundwater quality parameters). Table 6 shows the summary of WQI values at various locations in Dhaka (Zone 6) using the data of the previous study as reported by Huq and Hossain [23]. The average WQI value (39.099) shows that the status is “Good”.
Table 6.
Summary of WQI values at various locations in Dhaka (Zone 6) using the observed data of previous study *.
4. Conclusions
This study revealed that the collected groundwater samples had maximum pH, DO, COD, As, and TS values of 6.9 (-), 0.3, 0.3, 0, and 4 ppm, respectively. All the tested groundwater quality parameters comply with the Bangladesh drinking water quality standards, i.e., groundwater quality is excellent by considering ten groundwater samples with six groundwater quality parameters. The average WQI value is 0.211. The water quality status based on WQI values is excellent, and the possible uses are drinking, irrigation, and industrial purposes. Based on the findings, the following suggestions are recommended as only a few quality parameters were considered in this research due to time constraints. More samples can be collected and more water quality parameters can be tested for each sample, e.g., turbidity, NPK, heavy metals (As, Pb, Cd, Cr, and Fe), and color. Further research on the evaluation of microbiological water quality (e.g., total coliforms (TC), fecal coliforms (FC), and Escherichia coli (E. coli)) is recommended as compulsory, as it is associated with human health risks. Seasonal variations in groundwater quality parameters in Dhaka and in Bangladesh can be studied. Then, WQI can be estimated in further studies. Moreover, GIS-based studies can be conducted further, such as examining spatial changes in the measured hydrochemical parameters according to surface and subsurface conditions and the spatial distribution of WQI values according to the aquifer characteristics and surface environmental conditions. In the present study, only a site in the Gazipur area and nine sites in the northern part of Dhaka were selected due to time constraints. Therefore, further studies on the selected sites and on more sites in and around Dhaka city for the selected groundwater quality parameters are recommended to obtain accurate concentrations of groundwater quality parameters and the latest scenario. It is also necessary to further study the impacts of land use, land cover changes, and anthropogenic activities on groundwater quality parameters in the selected or other locations in and around Dhaka city.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, A.A.; Formal analysis, A.A.; Investigation, A.A., A., M.R.I., M.S.A., M.M. and M.N.H.; Methodology, A.A.; Resources, M.S.A. and M.N.H.; Supervision, A.A.; Validation, A.A. and T.A.; Visualization, M.R.I., A. and M.M.; Writing—original draft, A.A.; Writing—review and editing, A.A., T.A., M.A.U., A.O.A.-S., M.S., A., M.R.I., M.S.A., M.M., M.A.-M., A.M. and M.N.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement
The study did not report any data.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2023R241), Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
| COD | Chemical Oxygen Demand |
| DO | Dissolved Oxygen |
| ECR | Environment Conservation Rules |
| mg/L | Milligram per liter |
| TDS | Total Dissolved Solids |
| TS | Total Solids |
| TSS | Total Suspended Solids |
| WHO | World Health Organization |
| WQI | Water Quality Index |
Appendix A
Table A1.
Water quality index values of groundwater samples.
Table A1.
Water quality index values of groundwater samples.
| Sample No. | Parameters | Observed Values, Vn | Standard Values, Sn | Recommended Agency | Ideal Value, Vid | Unit Weight, Wn | Quality Rating, qn = (Vn − Vid)/(Sn − Vid) × 100 | Wnqn | ∑Wnqn | WQI = ∑Wn qn /∑Wn |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3 | pH | 6.8 | 8.5 | ECR [22] | 7 | 0.005729 | 13.333333 | 0.076383 | 0.164 | 0.164 |
| DO (mg/L) | 0.2 | 6 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.008116 | 3.333333 | 0.027052 | |||
| COD (mg/L) | 0.2 | 4 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.012174 | 5.000000 | 0.060868 | |||
| TS (mg/L) | 2 | 1010 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000048 | 0.198020 | 0.000010 | |||
| TDS (mg/L) | 0.1 | 1000 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000049 | 0.010000 | 0.000000 | |||
| Arsenic (mg/L) | 0 | 0.05 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.973885 | 0.000000 | 0.000000 | |||
| 4 | pH | 6.9 | 8.5 | ECR [22] | 7 | 0.005729 | 6.666667 | 0.038192 | 0.109 | 0.109 |
| DO (mg/L) | 0.3 | 6 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.008116 | 5.000000 | 0.040579 | |||
| COD (mg/L) | 0.1 | 4 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.012174 | 2.500000 | 0.030434 | |||
| TS (mg/L) | 4 | 1010 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000048 | 0.396040 | 0.000019 | |||
| TDS (mg/L) | 0.3 | 1000 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000049 | 0.030000 | 0.000001 | |||
| Arsenic (mg/L) | 0 | 0.05 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.973885 | 0.000000 | 0.000000 | |||
| 5 | pH | 6.7 | 8.5 | ECR [22] | 7 | 0.005729 | 20.000000 | 0.114575 | 0.216 | 0.216 |
| DO (mg/L) | 0.3 | 6 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.008116 | 5.000000 | 0.040579 | |||
| COD (mg/L) | 0.2 | 4 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.012174 | 5.000000 | 0.060868 | |||
| TS (mg/L) | 4 | 1010 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000048 | 0.396040 | 0.000019 | |||
| TDS (mg/L) | 0.2 | 1000 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000049 | 0.020000 | 0.000001 | |||
| Arsenic (mg/L) | 0 | 0.05 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.973885 | 0.000000 | 0.000000 | |||
| 6 | pH | 6.6 | 8.5 | ECR [22] | 7 | 0.005729 | 26.666667 | 0.152766 | 0.241 | 0.241 |
| DO (mg/L) | 0.2 | 6 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.008116 | 3.333333 | 0.027052 | |||
| COD (mg/L) | 0.2 | 4 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.012174 | 5.000000 | 0.060868 | |||
| TS (mg/L) | 3 | 1010 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000048 | 0.297030 | 0.000014 | |||
| TDS (mg/L) | 0.2 | 1000 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000049 | 0.020000 | 0.000001 | |||
| Arsenic (mg/L) | 0 | 0.05 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.973885 | 0.000000 | 0.000000 | |||
| 7 | pH | 6.5 | 8.5 | ECR [22] | 7 | 0.005729 | 33.333333 | 0.190958 | 0.292 | 0.292 |
| DO (mg/L) | 0.3 | 6 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.008116 | 5.000000 | 0.040579 | |||
| COD (mg/L) | 0.2 | 4 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.012174 | 5.000000 | 0.060868 | |||
| TS (mg/L) | 4 | 1010 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000048 | 0.396040 | 0.000019 | |||
| TDS (mg/L) | 0.2 | 1000 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000049 | 0.020000 | 0.000001 | |||
| Arsenic (mg/L) | 0 | 0.05 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.973885 | 0.000000 | 0.000000 | |||
| 8 | pH | 6.7 | 8.5 | ECR [22] | 7 | 0.005729 | 20.000000 | 0.114575 | 0.216 | 0.216 |
| DO (mg/L) | 0.3 | 6 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.008116 | 5.000000 | 0.040579 | |||
| COD (mg/L) | 0.2 | 4 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.012174 | 5.000000 | 0.060868 | |||
| TS (mg/L) | 4 | 1010 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000048 | 0.396040 | 0.000019 | |||
| TDS (mg/L) | 0.2 | 1000 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000049 | 0.020000 | 0.000001 | |||
| Arsenic (mg/L) | 0 | 0.05 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.973885 | 0.000000 | 0.000000 | |||
| 9 | pH | 6.7 | 8.5 | ECR [22] | 7 | 0.005729 | 20.000000 | 0.114575 | 0.219 | 0.219 |
| DO (mg/L) | 0.1 | 6 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.008116 | 1.666667 | 0.013526 | |||
| COD (mg/L) | 0.3 | 4 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.012174 | 7.500000 | 0.091302 | |||
| TS (mg/L) | 3 | 1010 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000048 | 0.297030 | 0.000014 | |||
| TDS (mg/L) | 0.3 | 1000 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000049 | 0.030000 | 0.000001 | |||
| Arsenic (mg/L) | 0 | 0.05 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.973885 | 0.000000 | 0.000000 | |||
| 10 | pH | 6.4 | 8.5 | ECR [22] | 7 | 0.005729 | 40.000000 | 0.229149 | 0.303 | 0.303 |
| DO (mg/L) | 0.1 | 6 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.008116 | 1.666667 | 0.013526 | |||
| COD (mg/L) | 0.2 | 4 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.012174 | 5.000000 | 0.060868 | |||
| TS (mg/L) | 1 | 1010 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000048 | 0.099010 | 0.000005 | |||
| TDS (mg/L) | 0.1 | 1000 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.000049 | 0.010000 | 0.000000 | |||
| Arsenic (mg/L) | 0 | 0.05 | ECR [22] | 0 | 0.973885 | 0.000000 | 0.000000 |
References
- Gleick, P.H. An Introduction to Global Fresh Water Issues. In Water in Crisis; Gleick, P., Translator; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1993; pp. 3–12. [Google Scholar]
- Gleick, P.H. Water Conflict Chronology. Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment and Security. 2003. Available online: http://worldwater.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/ww8-red-water-conflict-chronology-2014.pdf (accessed on 1 June 2023).
- Raven, P.H.; Berg, L.R.; Johnson, G.B. Environment; Harcourt Brace College Publishers: Fort Worth, TX, USA, 1995; p. 569. [Google Scholar]
- Botkin, D.B.; Keller, E.A. Environmental Science. Earth as a Living Planet; John Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2003; p. 688. [Google Scholar]
- Noutcha, M.; Damiete, O.; Johnny, M.; Ngozi, O.; Ezera, C.; Okiwelu, S. Quantity and Quality of Water Condensate from Air Conditioners and its Potential Uses at the University of Port Harcourt Nigeria. Adv. Appl. Sci. Res. 2016, 7, 45–48. [Google Scholar]
- Karim, M.; Das, S.K.; Paul, S.C.; Islam, M.F.; Hossain, M.S. Water quality assessment of Karrnaphuli river, Bangladesh using multivariate analysis and pollution indices. Asian J. Environ. Ecol. 2018, 7, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arnal, J.M.; Sancho, M.; Verd, G.; Lora, J. Design and installation of a decentralized drinking water system based on ultra filtration in Mozambique. Desalination 2010, 205, 613–617. [Google Scholar]
- Bhateria, R.; Jain, D. Water quality assessment of groundwater: A review. Sustain. Water Recourse. Manag. 2016, 2, 161–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohen, J.M.; Kamphake, L.J.; Harris, E.K.; Woodward, R.L. Taste threshold concentrations of metals in drinking water. J. Am. Water Work. Assoc. 1990, 52, 650–660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cox, D. Water Quality: pH and Alkalinity; University of Massachusetts: Armherst, MA, USA, 1975. [Google Scholar]
- Adimalla, N.; Qian, H. Groundwater quality evaluation using water quality index (WQI) for drinking purposes and human health risk (HHR) assessment in an agricultural region of Nanganur, south India. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2019, 176, 153–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Doria, M.D.F. Factors influencing public perception of drinking water quality. Water Policy 2010, 12, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yohannes, B.G. Assessment of Physicochemical and Bacteriological Quality of Drinking Water from Sources and House Hold Water Samples in Abbaya Woreda, Southern Ethiopia. Ph.D. Thesis, Hawasssa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Wikipedia. Drinking Water Quality Standards. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_water_quality_standards (accessed on 9 December 2022).
- Wong, Y.J.; Shimizu, Y.; He, K.; Nik Sulaiman, N.M. Comparison among different ASEAN water quality indices for the assessment of the spatial variation of surface water quality in the Selangor river basin, Malaysia. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2020, 192, 644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wong, Y.J.; Shimizu, Y.; Kamiya, A.; Maneechot, L.; Bharambe, K.P.; Fong, C.S.; Nik Sulaiman, N.M. Application of artificial intelligence methods for monsoonal river classification in Selangor river basin, Malaysia. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2021, 193, 438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ram, A.; Tiwari, S.K.; Pandey, H.K.; Chaurasia, A.K.; Singh, S.; Singh, Y.V. Groundwater quality assessment using water quality index (WQI) under GIS framework. Appl. Water Sci. 2021, 11, 46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Varol, S.; Davraz, A. Evaluation of the groundwater quality with WQI (Water Quality Index) and multivariate analysis: A case study of the Tefenni plain (Burdur/Turkey). Environ. Earth Sci. 2015, 73, 1725–1744. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mahmud, A.; Sikder, S.; Joardar, J.C. Assessment of groundwater quality in Khulna city of Bangladesh in terms of water quality index for drinking purpose. Appl. Water Sci. 2020, 10, 226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Horton, R.K. An index number system for rating water quality. J. Water Pollut. 1965, 3, 300–305. [Google Scholar]
- Akter, T.; Jhohura, F.T.; Akter, F.; Chowdhury, T.R.; Mistry, S.K.; Dey, D.; Barua, M.K.; Islam, M.A.; Rahman, M. Water Quality Index for measuring drinking water quality in rural Bangladesh: A cross-sectional study. J. Health Popul. Nutr. 2016, 35, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- ECR. The Environmental Conservation Rules. Ministry of Environmental and Forest, The People’s Republic of Bangladesh. 1997. Available online: https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/bgd19918.pdf (accessed on 1 June 2023).
- Huq, F.; Hossain, S.Z. Assessment of Groundwater Quality Parameters of Zone 6 of Dhaka City. UITS J. 2013, 2, 49–59. [Google Scholar]
- Sharmin, S.; Mia, J.; Miah, M.S.; Zakir, H.M. Hydrogeochemistry and heavy metal contamination in groundwaters of Dhaka metropolitan city, Bangladesh: Assessment of human health impact. HydroResearch 2020, 3, 106–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).