Gas Pressure Dynamics in Small and Mid-Size Lakes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Environmental Gases and Methods
2.1. Solubility of Gases
2.2. Gas Pressure, Saturation, Total Gas Pressure
2.3. Relevant Gases
2.4. Simulations
3. Measurements
3.1. Investigated Lakes
- Rassnitzer See formed in the abandoned lignite mine Merseburg Ost 1b in the 1990s. Fresh and salty groundwater filled the void, resulting in a salinity-stratified water body, which does not overturn completely in winter. The final water level was reached by introducing freshwater from the nearby river Weisse Elster in 2002 [42,43,44,45].
- Barleber See is the residual of a gravel pit (gravel excavations took place at the beginning of the 1930s). As the local open air swimming facility of the city of Magdeburg, it is intensively used for recreation. Increasing nutrient concentrations led to heavy algal and cyanobacteria blooms and a restoration by alum treatment in 1986 [46,47]. A further use as recreational area required a second chemical treatment of the waters with poly-aluminum chloride from 9th July to 15th October 2019. Inflow and outflow exclusively happen through exchange with groundwater [48].
- Felsensee is a small lake, which formed in a former quarry. After stone production ceased, the quarry filled with groundwater. The water level has reached about 22 m. Higher conductivity groundwater inflows have turned the lake meromictic [49].
- Lake Vollert-Sued is a flooded opencast lignite mine. The pit was (until 1969) used to dispose of wastewater from lignite processing. There is no surficial inflow or outflow but exchange with groundwater balancing the evaporation deficit and causing groundwater contamination in the near vicinity of the lake [50,51]. Hence it is heavily affected through its history as a dumping site. The water has been treated in 1999 to reduce the unpleasant smell and the impact on animals in the area [52,53]. The lake has since been meromictic.
3.2. Equipment
- Arendsee: CTD profiles 2017: YSI 6600 V2, 2019: EXO2 from YSI, USA; optical oxygen sensor; CO2 and gas pressure measurement in a gas volume behind a permeable membrane; CO2 detection by IR spectrometry) CONTROS HydroC® CO2 from Kongsberg Maritime, Germany;
- Rappbode Reservoir: CTM90 from Sea & Sun Technology, Germany; optical oxygen sensor;
- Rassnitzer See: CTM90 from Sea & Sun Technology, Germany; optical oxygen sensor;
- Barleber See: CTM90 from Sea & Sun Technology, Germany; optical oxygen sensor;
- Felsensee: Ocean Seven 316 from Idronaut, Italy; amperometric oxygen sensor;
- Vollert Sued: CTD + O2: Ocean Seven 316 from Idronaut, Italy; amperometric oxygen sensor; gas pressure: (TDG-sensor pressure measurement in a gas filled permeable silicon tube) Hydrolab, USA; CH4, CO2 and N2: samples in GC thermal conductivity detector (see [53]).
4. Results
4.1. General Picture of Circulation and Atmospheric Recharge
4.2. Complementing Gas Concentrations for Gas Pressure
4.3. Elevated Gas Pressure Observations
5. Discussion
5.1. Ebullition
5.2. Other Mechanisms for Raising Gas Pressure and Releasing Gas Bubbles
5.3. Accumulation of Gases in Monimolimnia
5.4. Final Remarks
- 1.
- Nitrogen always contributes to gas pressure decisively and must be considered;
- 2.
- Oxygen from the atmosphere and from photosynthesis can contribute decisively to the gas pressure;
- 3.
- Methane (mainly from biodegradation or volcanic sources) or
- 4.
- Carbon dioxide (from external sources such as volcanic vents and geochemical reactions) can become an important or even the leading contribution to gas pressure.
- 5.
- Vapor pressure from water;
- 6.
- Argon from atmospheric sources.
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Atmosphere | kH (25 °C) | kH (25 °C) | TE | kH (25 °C) | A1 | A2 | A3 | u | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[%] | [mol/m3/Pa] | [mol/L/bar] | [K] | [-] | Coefficients for Equation (4) | ||||
N2 | 78.09 | 6.4 × 10−6 | 6.4 × 10−4 | 1300 | 0.016 | −59.6274 | 85.7661 | 24.3696 | 986.9/ 22391 |
O2 | 20.95 | 1.3 × 10−5 | 1.3 × 10−3 | 1500 | 0.032 | −58.3877 | 85.8079 | 23.8439 | |
Ar | 0.93 | 1.4 × 10−5 | 1.4 × 10−3 | 1400 | 0.035 | −55.6578 | 82.0262 | 22.5929 | |
CH4 | 0.00019 | 1.4 × 10−5 | 1.4 × 10−3 | 1600 | 0.035 | −68.8862 | 101.4956 | 28.7314 | |
CO2 | ~0.039 | 3.3 × 10−4 | 3.3 × 10−2 | 2400 | 0.82 | −58.0931 | 90.5069 | 22.2940 | 1/ 1.01325 |
Lake Name | Surface Area [km2] | Volume [106 m3] | Max. Depth [m] | Inflow [106 m3/y] | Outflow [106 m3/y] | Residence Time [y] | Age in 2020 [y] | Origin |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Arendsee | 5.1 | 149 | 49 | 6.03 | 2.65 | 56 | >10,000 | Dissolution of salt dome and subsidence |
Rappbode Reservoir | 3.95 | 113 | 89 | 109.8 | 89.6 | 0.942 | 61 | Artificial dam |
Rassnitzer See | 3.1 | 68 | 38 | 2.07 | 0.4 | 170 | 18 | Lignite surface mine |
Barleber See | 1.03 | 6.9 | 9.8 | 1.18 | 0.53 | 13 | 88 | Gravel and sand excavations |
Felsensee | 0.085 | Unknown (~1) | 22 | little GW flow | little GW flow | Unknown | >55 | Stone quarry |
Vollert-Sued | 0.09 | 2 | 27 | 0.055 | 0.005 | 400 | 51 | Polluted opencast lignite mine |
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Boehrer, B.; Jordan, S.; Leng, P.; Waldemer, C.; Schwenk, C.; Hupfer, M.; Schultze, M. Gas Pressure Dynamics in Small and Mid-Size Lakes. Water 2021, 13, 1824. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13131824
Boehrer B, Jordan S, Leng P, Waldemer C, Schwenk C, Hupfer M, Schultze M. Gas Pressure Dynamics in Small and Mid-Size Lakes. Water. 2021; 13(13):1824. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13131824
Chicago/Turabian StyleBoehrer, Bertram, Sylvia Jordan, Peifang Leng, Carolin Waldemer, Cornelis Schwenk, Michael Hupfer, and Martin Schultze. 2021. "Gas Pressure Dynamics in Small and Mid-Size Lakes" Water 13, no. 13: 1824. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13131824