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Article

Botanical Studies Based on Textual Evidence in Eastern Asia and Its Implications for the Ancient Climate

by
Haiming Liu
*,†,
Huijia Song
†,
Fei Duan
and
Liang Shen
*
Natural History Museum of China, Beijing 100050, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 824; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070824
Submission received: 4 March 2025 / Revised: 27 June 2025 / Accepted: 27 June 2025 / Published: 7 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Climatology)
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Abstract

Understanding morphological descriptions of plants documented by ancient peoples over 1000 years ago and identifying the species they described are critical for reconstructing the natural geographic distribution of plant taxa, tracking taxonomic variations, and inferring historical climate dynamics. Analyzing shifts in plant communities and climatic conditions during this period is essential to unravel the interplay among floristic composition, climate fluctuations, and anthropogenic impacts. However, research in this field remains limited, with greater emphasis placed on plant taxa from hundreds of millions of years ago. Investigations into flora and climate during the last two millennia are sparse, and pre-millennial climatic conditions remain poorly characterized. In this study, a historical text written 1475 years ago was analyzed to compile plant names and morphological features, followed by taxonomic identification. The research identified three gymnosperm species (one in Pinaceae, two in Cupressaceae), 1 Tamaricaceae species (dicotyledon), and 19 dicotyledon species. However, three plant groups could only be identified at the genus level. Using textual analysis and woody plant coexistence methods, the climate of 1475 years ago in western Henan Province, located in the middle-lower Yellow River basin in East Asia, was reconstructed. Results indicate that the mean temperature of the coldest month (MTCM) was approximately 1.3 °C higher than modern values. In comparison, the mean temperature of the warmest month (MTWM) and mean annual temperature (MAT) were lower than present-day levels. This suggests slightly cooler overall conditions with milder seasonal extremes in ancient Luoyang—a finding supported by contemporaneous studies. Furthermore, annual precipitation (AP), precipitation of the warmest quarter (PWQ), and precipitation of the coldest quarter (PCQ) in the Luoyang region 1475 years ago exceeded modern measurements, despite the area’s monsoonal climate. This suggests significantly higher atmospheric moisture content in ancient air masses compared to today. This study provides floristic and climatic baseline data for advancing our understanding of global climate variability at millennial scales.

1. Introduction

Climate change has long been recognized as a critical driver of biodiversity transformations in natural ecosystems and socio-cultural evolution in human societies [1,2,3,4]. High-resolution paleoclimate reconstructions provide essential climatic baselines, enabling comparisons of historical patterns and predictions of future climate trends and their impacts. However, despite China’s rapid population growth, agricultural intensification, cultural advancement, and climatic fluctuations over the past two millennia, detailed climatic records remain scarce, particularly for two millennial-scale climate variability [5].
This knowledge gap necessitates methodological innovations in two millennium-scale paleoclimate research. Recent global efforts have employed diverse approaches using multiple proxies: tree rings [6,7], corals [8,9,10], ice cores [11,12,13], speleothems [12], marine sediments [14], boreholes [15], glacial records [16], and climate modeling [17,18]. These studies collectively suggest that natural forcings predominantly explain terrestrial temperature variations at millennial timescales [19]. Current methodologies are predominantly based on meteorological and atmospheric dynamics frameworks [20,21,22], while ecological approaches examining plant–animal interactions and dependencies remain underdeveloped. Most existing biological studies focus on geological timescales (106–107 years), leaving a critical gap in millennium-scale ecological-climatological research.
This study presents a novel approach by integrating botanical records from a millennium-old historical text with ecological methods to document local flora. Through coexistence analysis of plant community composition, we aim to reconstruct paleoclimatic conditions, notwithstanding methodological constraints inherent to such proxy data. Our objective is to establish an ecology-based framework for quantitative millennium-scale environmental reconstruction, thereby providing a robust climatic context for understanding contemporaneous human activities and historical processes.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Site

Yang Xuanzhi was an official and literatus of the Northern Wei Dynasty in China, before 559 AD, who served in ancient Luoyang from 528 to 530 CE. Over a decade later, between 543 and 547 CE, he returned to ancient Luoyang and authored A Record of Buddhist Monasteries in Luoyang (Luoyang Qielan Ji), a comprehensive account of the city’s layout and landmarks during his time. Modern archaeological studies identify the ruins of the Han-Wei Luoyang City, located 15 km east of present-day Luoyang in Henan Province, as the historical city documented in his work [23].
As a capital or important city, the ancient city of Luoyang of the Han and Wei Dynasties was used for more than 1600 years, from the establishment of the city in the Zhou Dynasty (11th century BC) to the beginning of the Tang Dynasty (7th century AD). Archaeological research has revealed that the ancient city of Luoyang of the Han and Wei Dynasties reached its peak during the Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD), with a layout divided into three concentric zones, including the palace, inner city, and outer city, covering an area of 100 km2, making it the largest capital city in ancient China in area, nine times the size of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, and 8.2 times the size of the city of Baghdad (established in 800 AD) [24,25,26]. The study site focuses on the Han-Wei Luoyang Ancient City ruins (112.60° E, 34.72° N), situated in eastern China within the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River (Figure 1).

2.2. Research Subjects and Temporal Scope

The Luoyang Qielan Ji (A Record of Buddhist Monasteries in Luoyang) documents 23 species of woody plants that had grown in ancient Luoyang during the Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 CE), approximately 1475 years ago. The locations of Luoyang, the Former city of Luoyang of the Han and Wei Dynasties, and other cities are compared in this paper (Figure 2). This study focused on these woody plants and the climatic conditions of Luoyang during that historical period.

2.3. Taxonomic Study

To determine the taxonomic identities of the 23 woody plant species recorded, botanical studies were conducted [27,28,29,30]. These investigations relied on historical plant names and their documented morphological characteristics recorded in historical books. The morphological characteristics of each species were analyzed by cross-referencing descriptions and illustrations from historical texts across different periods. The compiled characteristics were then systematically compared using the principles of comparative morphology to assign scientific names corresponding to the historical nomenclature.

2.4. Climatic Analysis

2.4.1. Overview of Climatic Reconstruction Methodology

The Coexistence Approach [31], which was developed by Mosbrugger and Utescher, has enabled climatic reconstruction through the establishment of a Palaeoflora database. This database, containing the climatic parameter ranges for more than 800 fossil plant taxa and their extant relatives, has proved to be effective for research into continental European climates. However, due to biogeographical disparities, the applicability of the database in Asian regions is somewhat restricted.

2.4.2. Construction of the Atlas of Woody Plants in China

The Atlas of Woody Plants in China was established by Chinese researchers in 2009 [32]. It contains 11,405 native woody plant species and was constructed by integrating data from the following authoritative sources: Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae (FRPS), China Seed Plant Database, The Chinese and English editions of Flora of China, Catalogue of Life China, and Annual Checklist 2008. The methods of constructing the database include: (1) Spatial Distribution Mapping: Based on the records in FRPS and regional floras, plant distributions were resolved to the county level. (2) Climate Parameter Allocation: For smaller counties, local climate data were used directly. For larger counties, which were divided into zones based on topographic and vegetation characteristics, climate data were assigned from representative meteorological stations within each zone. (3) Data Quality Control: Only taxonomically confirmed native species were included. Non-native and ambiguous taxa were excluded.

2.4.3. Procedure for Climate Parameter Extraction

The study uses geographical information system (GIS) tools for extracting climate parameters: (1) Determination of species distribution boundaries (latitude and elevation extremes). (2) Analysis of climate extremes (temperature and precipitation thresholds) within these boundaries. (3) Establishment of the ecological tolerance range for each species.

2.4.4. Core Climate Parameter Suite

The study selected six crucial climate parameters: (1) Temperature indices: mean annual temperature (MAT), mean temperature of the warmest month (MTWM), and mean temperature of the coldest month (MTCM). (2) Precipitation indices: annual precipitation (AP), precipitation of the warmest quarter (PWQ), and precipitation of the coldest quarter (PCQ). Regarding the ecological significance of parameters, MAT reflects the regional heat energy budget. MTWM/MTCM indicates the annual temperature range. AP quantifies the total water availability. PWQ/PCQ reveals the seasonal distribution of precipitation.

2.4.5. Methodological Implementation of Paleoclimate Reconstruction

The specific methods employed for the reconstruction of the paleoclimate are as follows: (1) Taxonomic Verification: Validation of 23 woody plant species documented in The Chronicles of the Buddhist Monasteries in Luoyang, taxonomic confirmation through morphological comparison, and exclusion of non-native or taxonomically ambiguous species. (2) Parameter Extraction: Acquisition of the range of six climatic parameters from the database. (3) Coexistence Analysis: Superposition of the climatic tolerance ranges of all species and the identification of coexistence intervals. (4) Data Validation: Comparison with China’s Surface Climate Data (1971–1980) [33].

2.5. Statistical Analysis

Data were compiled and analyzed using Microsoft Excel, with statistical analyses performed in SPSS 22.0. Origin 8.0 was used to draw figures.

3. Results

3.1. Results of the Taxonomic Studies

According to the results (Figure 3, Table 1, and Table S1 in Supplementary Materials), the study found that 23 types of woody plants existed in the Han and Wei Luoyang city area 1475 years ago. The study identified three species of gymnosperms, namely Pinaceae and Cupressaceae, and 20 species of dicotyledons. However, three plant groups could only be identified to the genus level.
Comparative morphological studies revealed that 21 of the 23 woody plant taxa could be identified to the species level, with taxonomic determinations detailed in Table 1. Additionally, research showed that 5 of the 23 species were non-native to Luoyang: apricot (Prunus armeniaca), wine tree (‘Jiu Shu’), flour tree (‘Mian Mu’), ox tendon tree (‘Niu Jin’), and dogwood (Cornus spp., referred to as ‘Gou Gu’).

3.2. Climatic Analysis of Woody Plants in the Book of Buddhist Temples in Luoyang

Through a comparative analysis of The Atlas of Woody Plants in China: Distribution and Climate [32], the ranges of the six critical climatic parameters were determined based on the classified plant categories: MAT, 10.6~13.5 (°C); MTCM, −0.2~1.5 (°C); MTWM, 18.8~27.1 (°C); AP, 687~892 (mm); PWQ, 363~458 (mm); PCQ, 31–35 (mm). Pyrus bretschneideri exhibits the lowest threshold for high-temperature tolerance and the minimum rainfall tolerance among the species studied. Consequently, this species demonstrates the narrowest ecological amplitude. In contrast, Lycium chinense possesses the broadest tolerance ranges for both temperature and precipitation variations (Figure 4).
After reconstructing the mean annual temperature, mean temperature of the coldest month, mean temperature of the warmest month, annual precipitation, precipitation of the coldest quarter, and precipitation of the warmest quarter for the former city of Luoyang of the Han-Wei Dynasties, the reconstructed climatic variables were compared with modern Luoyang and other cities in China. Our analysis revealed that certain cities exhibit individual climatic factors closely approximating or even matching those of reconstructed ancient Luoyang. Figure 5 demonstrates the high similarity or identity of specific climatic factors between these cities and the ancient Luoyang, while Figure 2 illustrates their entirely distinct geographical coordinates (latitude and longitude), which may even exhibit significant deviations. The ancient city of Luoyang exhibited significantly higher precipitation levels than modern Luoyang, demonstrating similarities with southern Chinese cities such as Nanjing and Haikou in terms of rainfall patterns. Meanwhile, its mean temperature during colder months was higher than that of present-day Luoyang yet comparable to other contemporary cities, whereas the mean temperature during warmer months remained lower than that of most other cities (Figure 5).

4. Discussion

4.1. Plant Species in Ancient Luoyang City

Through comparative morphological studies, 23 woody plant species mentioned in the text were identified. These species are widely distributed in northeastern China, including pine, pagoda tree, mulberry, etc. The current forest coverage rate in Luoyang City is 41.04%, exhibiting distinct vertical vegetation zonation. Forest vegetation within the region is categorized into tree communities, shrub communities, and herbaceous communities. Major forest-forming tree species include Chinese pine (Pinus tabulaeformis), Dahurian larch (Larix gmelinii), oaks (Quercus spp.), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), empress tree (Paulownia sieboldii), mourning cypress (Cupressus funebris), birches (Betula spp.), tung oil tree (Aleurites fordii), and Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila) [34]. The composition of plant species in ancient Luoyang shows divergence from that of modern Luoyang, indicating partial changes climatic changes over the millennium-scale timeframe. Notably, among the 23 woody species identified, five are non-native to Luoyang but remain distributed in other provinces. This phenomenon may result from either human introduction for cultivation or local extinction due to environmental shifts.

4.2. Climatic Type of Ancient and Modern Luoyang

From this research, it is evident that in terms of temperature data, aside from the parameter of MTCM, where ancient Luoyang had a slightly higher value than modern Luoyang, both the MAT and the MTWM were lower in ancient Luoyang than in modern Luoyang. This indicates that the Luoyang region 1475 years ago was cooler than modern Luoyang, with a smaller temperature range. Similar patterns of cooler past climates have been observed in other areas, such as the Late Miocene Eastern Zhejiang, where plant fossil-based reconstructions also revealed higher humidity and milder temperatures compared to modern conditions [35]. Meanwhile, regarding the MAT, MTCM, and MTWM values, the locations with the closest corresponding data to ancient Luoyang city are all in the southeast or south direction of modern Luoyang city. In terms of precipitation data, the values of AP, PCQ, and PWQ were all higher in ancient Luoyang city than that in modern Luoyang city. This suggests that ancient Luoyang city 1475 years ago was more humid than modern Luoyang. Meanwhile, regarding the AP, PCQ, and PWQ values, the cities with closer corresponding values to ancient Luoyang city are mainly located further to the south, except for Laoting which is relatively to the north. However, compared with ancient Luoyang, Laoting is closer to the ocean. Such spatial climatic gradients are consistent with modern observations of spring meteorological drought patterns in East Asia, where proximity to the ocean significantly modulates humidity [36]. For comparison, in East Asia, which is located in the Northern Hemisphere with the ocean to its east, the southeast or south direction is closer to the equator and the ocean, resulting in higher temperatures and greater precipitation. Although the PWQ of Laoting, which is further to the north, is close to that of ancient Luoyang, Laoting is closer to the ocean compared with ancient Luoyang. Therefore, ancient Luoyang 1475 years ago, with a smaller temperature range and more precipitation, likely had a typical temperate maritime climate or subtropical maritime climate. In contrast, modern Luoyang, with hot and rainy summers and cold and dry winters, has a typical temperate continental climate.

4.3. Climate Change over Long Timescales

Zhu Kezhen’s work documented 19 exceptionally cold winters in 6th-century China, a frequency exceeding climatological norms, indicating significantly colder conditions than present-day climate [37]. Concurrently, Lamb’s analysis of Greenlandic plant remains and Californian tree-ring chronologies corroborated synchronous cooling trends across Europe and North America during this period [38]. Notably, the southward migration of Inuit populations into Greenland culminating in the displacement of Scandinavian settlements, has been partially attributed to this climatic cooling [39,40]. Wang Huichang’s research on the correlation between nomadic migrations and climatic shifts in northern China identified three cold-dry phases over the past two millennia, with the second cold phase (1st–6th centuries AD) exhibiting annual temperatures 2–4 °C lower than modern values [41]. Wu Linhua further delineated a 400-year cold period postdating the Qin-Han warm phase (250 BC–50 AD), characterized by winter temperatures 0.5 °C below modern levels, peaking during the mid-Northern and Southern Dynasties (490–520 AD) with temperatures approximately 1.3 °C lower than contemporary averages [42]. Our findings align with the conclusions, confirming that even though the mean temperature of the coldest month in Luoyang 1475 years ago was slightly higher than the modern value, the mean annual temperature and the mean temperature of the warmest month were both lower than the contemporary figures. This evidence indicates that overall, the region of Luoyang has experienced a cooling trend from 1475 years ago up to the present.
Ge identified the Wei-Jin and Northern-Southern Dynasties period (220–589 AD) as a climatic nadir, with winter half-year mean temperatures during the coldest interval (481–510 AD) being 1.2 °C below modern levels [43]. Our study corroborates these findings, revealing that the coldest-month temperature during the compilation of Luoyang Jialan Ji (Records of Buddhist Monasteries in Luoyang) was approximately 1.3 °C lower than modern values, consistent with Ge’s conclusions [41]. While Zhu’s [44] millennial-scale reconstruction suggests a gradual global cooling trend, he acknowledged climatic fluctuations, such as the one- to two-century-long cold phase during the early Zhou Dynasty (11th–3rd centuries BC). Our research confirms Luoyang’s 6th-century AD cold phase, which aligns with the broader East Asian cooling trajectory. Californian tree-ring data further reveal a prolonged climatic deterioration beginning post-300 AD, reaching its nadir in the early 6th century [45], reinforcing our findings. These multi-proxy records collectively highlight the complexity of Holocene climate dynamics, where regional cooling episodes coexist within overarching millennial-scale trends.

5. Conclusions

This study employs philological methodology to investigate a 1475 years ago historical text, utilizing documented woody plant species from the records in conjunction with China’s botanical databases to reconstruct local climatic conditions 1475 years ago. The study found that, in contrast to modern Luoyang, the MAT and MTWM of ancient Luoyang 1475 years ago were lower than the corresponding values in modern Luoyang, while the values of AP, PCQ, and PWQ were higher in ancient Luoyang than in modern Luoyang. Applying coexistence analysis for two millennial-scale climate reconstructions represents a methodological innovation in paleoclimatology at this temporal resolution. However, the interpretive robustness of these findings may be constrained by the limited availability of contemporaneous archival materials sharing comparable documentary characteristics. Future research building upon China’s continuous multi-millennium historical records could develop enhanced correlation frameworks, thereby providing more reliable environmental baselines for other millennium-scale climate studies.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/atmos16070824/s1, Table S1: Taxonomy of the woody plants presented in the book of Buddhist Temples in Luoyang.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.L. and L.S.; methodology, H.L., H.S., F.D. and L.S.; validation, H.L., H.S. and F.D.; investigation, H.L.; data curation, H.L., H.S., F.D. and L.S.; writing original draft preparation, H.L. and L.S.; writing review and editing, H.L., H.S., F.D. and L.S.; funding acquisition, L.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This investigation was funded by Financial Projects of Beijing, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology Budding Talent Program (BGS202111), General Program of National Natural Science Foundation of China (82274051) and National Natural Science Foundation of China (32301317).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors want to acknowledge the esteemed editors’ and reviewers for their constructive feedback, which enhanced the overall quality of this manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Atmosphere 16 00824 g001
Figure 1. Study site in this paper. Location of the former city of Luoyang of the Han and Wei Dynasties (▲) and the modern Luoyang city (■).
Figure 1. Study site in this paper. Location of the former city of Luoyang of the Han and Wei Dynasties (▲) and the modern Luoyang city (■).
Atmosphere 16 00824 g001
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Figure 2. Location of Luoyang, the former city of Luoyang of the Han and Wei Dynasties, and other cities compared in this paper. (1) Hanzhong, (2) Fangxian, (3) Huoshan, (4) Xinyang, (5) Nanjing, (6) Chengdu, (7) Nanchong, (8) Haikou, (9) Laoting, (10) Xuzhou.
Figure 2. Location of Luoyang, the former city of Luoyang of the Han and Wei Dynasties, and other cities compared in this paper. (1) Hanzhong, (2) Fangxian, (3) Huoshan, (4) Xinyang, (5) Nanjing, (6) Chengdu, (7) Nanchong, (8) Haikou, (9) Laoting, (10) Xuzhou.
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Figure 3. Line drawings for the woody plants painted in the book of Buddhist Temples in Luoyang. The following materials from old books helped in determining the plant taxa from the above original images: (A) Flowers of ‘Huai’ painted in the Essentials of the Pharmacopoeia Ranked According to Nature and Efficacity (Imperially Commissioned) (the book was completed in 1505 AD). (B) Fruits of ‘Huai’ painted in the Universal Encyclopaedia (the book was completed in 1607 AD). (C) Leaves of ‘Huai’ painted in the Universal Encyclopaedia (the book was completed in 1607 AD). (D) Inflorescences of ‘Mulberry (Sang)’ painted in Illustrated Study of the Creatures (Plants and Animals) in the Book of Odes (the book was completed in 1784 AD). (E) Leaf of ‘Mulberry (Sang)’ painted in Illustrated Study of the Creatures (Plants a and Animals) in the Book of Odes (the book was completed in 1784 AD). (F) Leaves of ‘Toon (Chun)’ painted in the Universal Encyclopaedia (he book was completed in 1607 AD). (G) Fruit of ‘Jujube (Zao)’ painted in the Explanation on the Metals, Rocks, Insects, Grass and Woods (the book was completed in 1620 AD). (H) Leaf of ‘Jujube (Zao)’ painted in the Explanation on the Metals, Rocks, Insects, Grass and Woods (the book was completed in 1620 AD). (I) Leaf of ‘Chinese Catalpa (Qiu)’ painted in The Great Pharmacopoeia (the book was completed in 1578 AD). (J) Leaf of ‘Tung (Tong)’ painted in the Illustrated Study of the Creatures (Plants a and Animals) in the Book of Odes (the book was completed in 1784 AD). (K) Flower of ‘Tung (Tong)’ painted in the Illustrated Study of the Creatures (Plants a and Animals) in the Book of Odes (the book was completed in 1784 AD). (L) Flower of ‘Peach (Tao)’ painted in the Illustrated Study of the Creatures (Plants a and Animals) in the Book of Odes (the book was completed in 1784 AD). (M) Leaf of ‘Peach (Tao)’ painted in the Illustrated Study of the Creatures (Plants a and Animals) in the Book of Odes (the book was completed in 1784 AD). (N) Fruit of Peach (Tao) painted in the Complete Book for the Appreciation of Flora and Fauna (the book was completed in 1688 AD). (O) Leaf of ‘Elm (Yu)’ painted in the Illustrated Study of the Creatures (Plants a and Animals) in the Book of Odes (the book was completed in 1784 AD). (P) Leaf of ‘Pear Tree (Li)(02)’ painted in the Essentials of the Pharmacopoeia Ranked According to Nature and Efficacity (Imperially Commissioned) (the book was completed in 1505 AD). (Q) Fruit of ‘Pear Tree (Li)(02)’ painted in the Essentials of the Pharmacopoeia Ranked according to Nature and Efficacity (Imperially Commissioned) (the book was completed in 1505 AD). (R) Fruit of ‘Chinese Wolfberry (Qi)’ painted in the Explanation on the Metals, Rocks, Insects, Grass and Woods (the book was completed in 1620 AD). (S) Leaf of ‘Chinese Wolfberry (Qi)’ painted in the Explanation on the Metals, Rocks, Insects, Grass and Woods (the book was completed in 1620 AD). (T) Leaf of ‘Nane Tree (Nai)’ painted in the Essentials of the Pharmacopoeia Ranked according to Nature and Efficacity (Imperially Commissioned) (the book was completed in 1505 AD). (U) Fruit of ‘Nane Tree (Nai)’ painted in the Essentials of the Pharmacopoeia Ranked according to Nature and Efficacity (Imperially Commissioned) (the book was completed in 1505 AD). (V) Flower of ‘Nane Tree (Nai)’ painted in the Complete Book for the Appreciation of Flora and Fauna (the book was completed in 1688 AD).
Figure 3. Line drawings for the woody plants painted in the book of Buddhist Temples in Luoyang. The following materials from old books helped in determining the plant taxa from the above original images: (A) Flowers of ‘Huai’ painted in the Essentials of the Pharmacopoeia Ranked According to Nature and Efficacity (Imperially Commissioned) (the book was completed in 1505 AD). (B) Fruits of ‘Huai’ painted in the Universal Encyclopaedia (the book was completed in 1607 AD). (C) Leaves of ‘Huai’ painted in the Universal Encyclopaedia (the book was completed in 1607 AD). (D) Inflorescences of ‘Mulberry (Sang)’ painted in Illustrated Study of the Creatures (Plants and Animals) in the Book of Odes (the book was completed in 1784 AD). (E) Leaf of ‘Mulberry (Sang)’ painted in Illustrated Study of the Creatures (Plants a and Animals) in the Book of Odes (the book was completed in 1784 AD). (F) Leaves of ‘Toon (Chun)’ painted in the Universal Encyclopaedia (he book was completed in 1607 AD). (G) Fruit of ‘Jujube (Zao)’ painted in the Explanation on the Metals, Rocks, Insects, Grass and Woods (the book was completed in 1620 AD). (H) Leaf of ‘Jujube (Zao)’ painted in the Explanation on the Metals, Rocks, Insects, Grass and Woods (the book was completed in 1620 AD). (I) Leaf of ‘Chinese Catalpa (Qiu)’ painted in The Great Pharmacopoeia (the book was completed in 1578 AD). (J) Leaf of ‘Tung (Tong)’ painted in the Illustrated Study of the Creatures (Plants a and Animals) in the Book of Odes (the book was completed in 1784 AD). (K) Flower of ‘Tung (Tong)’ painted in the Illustrated Study of the Creatures (Plants a and Animals) in the Book of Odes (the book was completed in 1784 AD). (L) Flower of ‘Peach (Tao)’ painted in the Illustrated Study of the Creatures (Plants a and Animals) in the Book of Odes (the book was completed in 1784 AD). (M) Leaf of ‘Peach (Tao)’ painted in the Illustrated Study of the Creatures (Plants a and Animals) in the Book of Odes (the book was completed in 1784 AD). (N) Fruit of Peach (Tao) painted in the Complete Book for the Appreciation of Flora and Fauna (the book was completed in 1688 AD). (O) Leaf of ‘Elm (Yu)’ painted in the Illustrated Study of the Creatures (Plants a and Animals) in the Book of Odes (the book was completed in 1784 AD). (P) Leaf of ‘Pear Tree (Li)(02)’ painted in the Essentials of the Pharmacopoeia Ranked According to Nature and Efficacity (Imperially Commissioned) (the book was completed in 1505 AD). (Q) Fruit of ‘Pear Tree (Li)(02)’ painted in the Essentials of the Pharmacopoeia Ranked according to Nature and Efficacity (Imperially Commissioned) (the book was completed in 1505 AD). (R) Fruit of ‘Chinese Wolfberry (Qi)’ painted in the Explanation on the Metals, Rocks, Insects, Grass and Woods (the book was completed in 1620 AD). (S) Leaf of ‘Chinese Wolfberry (Qi)’ painted in the Explanation on the Metals, Rocks, Insects, Grass and Woods (the book was completed in 1620 AD). (T) Leaf of ‘Nane Tree (Nai)’ painted in the Essentials of the Pharmacopoeia Ranked according to Nature and Efficacity (Imperially Commissioned) (the book was completed in 1505 AD). (U) Fruit of ‘Nane Tree (Nai)’ painted in the Essentials of the Pharmacopoeia Ranked according to Nature and Efficacity (Imperially Commissioned) (the book was completed in 1505 AD). (V) Flower of ‘Nane Tree (Nai)’ painted in the Complete Book for the Appreciation of Flora and Fauna (the book was completed in 1688 AD).
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Figure 4. Analysis of coexistence of woody plants in the book of Buddhist Temples in Luoyang. The blue and red vertical lines within one parameter denote the positions of the minimum and maximum values, respectively. Abbreviations: MAT = mean annual temperature (°C), MTCM = mean temperature of the coldest month (°C), MTWM = mean temperature of the warmest month (°C), AP = annual precipitation (mm), PWQ = precipitation of the warmest quarter (mm), PCQ = precipitation of the coldest quarter (mm).
Figure 4. Analysis of coexistence of woody plants in the book of Buddhist Temples in Luoyang. The blue and red vertical lines within one parameter denote the positions of the minimum and maximum values, respectively. Abbreviations: MAT = mean annual temperature (°C), MTCM = mean temperature of the coldest month (°C), MTWM = mean temperature of the warmest month (°C), AP = annual precipitation (mm), PWQ = precipitation of the warmest quarter (mm), PCQ = precipitation of the coldest quarter (mm).
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Figure 5. Comparative analysis of climate factors in different cities. Bar charts representing different climatic parameters of the same city are color-coded with identical hues. In contrast, bar charts for the same climatic parameter across different cities are distinguished by distinct colors. For each climatic parameter, the vertical line represents the value corresponding to the Former City of Luoyang of the Han-Wei Dynasties. At the same time, the arrow indicates the city with the closest climatic parameter value to that of the Former City of Luoyang of the Han-Wei Dynasties.
Figure 5. Comparative analysis of climate factors in different cities. Bar charts representing different climatic parameters of the same city are color-coded with identical hues. In contrast, bar charts for the same climatic parameter across different cities are distinguished by distinct colors. For each climatic parameter, the vertical line represents the value corresponding to the Former City of Luoyang of the Han-Wei Dynasties. At the same time, the arrow indicates the city with the closest climatic parameter value to that of the Former City of Luoyang of the Han-Wei Dynasties.
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Table 1. The ancient and scientific names of the woody plants in the book of Buddhist Temples in Luoyang.
Table 1. The ancient and scientific names of the woody plants in the book of Buddhist Temples in Luoyang.
Ancient Names of PlantsScientific Names for the Plants
SongPinus sp.
HuaiStyphnolobium japonicum (L.) Schott
SangMorus alba var. alba Linn.
BaiCupressus funebris Endl
ChengTamarix sp./Myricaria sp.
ZhiHovenia acerba/Citrus trifoliata
YangPopulus tomentosa Carr.
Niu Jin Shu/Beef Tendon TreeVaccinium bracteatum Thunb.
Gou Gu/DogwoodIlex cornuta Lindl. et Paxt.
Jiu Shu/Liquor TreeCocos nucifera L.
Mian Mu/Flour WoodArenga westerhoutii Griffith
GuaJuniperus chinensis L.
ChunToona sinensis (A. Juss.) Roem.
ZaoZiziphus jujuba Mill
QiuCatalpa bungei C.A. Mey.
Tong / TungPaulownia fortunei (Seem.) Hemsl.
TaoPrunus persica L.
YuUlmus pumila L.
Li (01)Prunus salicina Lindl.
NaiMalus pumila Mill.
Li(02)Pyrus bretschneideri Rehd.
QiLycium chinense Miller
ZiCatalpa ovata G. Don
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Liu, H.; Song, H.; Duan, F.; Shen, L. Botanical Studies Based on Textual Evidence in Eastern Asia and Its Implications for the Ancient Climate. Atmosphere 2025, 16, 824. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070824

AMA Style

Liu H, Song H, Duan F, Shen L. Botanical Studies Based on Textual Evidence in Eastern Asia and Its Implications for the Ancient Climate. Atmosphere. 2025; 16(7):824. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070824

Chicago/Turabian Style

Liu, Haiming, Huijia Song, Fei Duan, and Liang Shen. 2025. "Botanical Studies Based on Textual Evidence in Eastern Asia and Its Implications for the Ancient Climate" Atmosphere 16, no. 7: 824. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070824

APA Style

Liu, H., Song, H., Duan, F., & Shen, L. (2025). Botanical Studies Based on Textual Evidence in Eastern Asia and Its Implications for the Ancient Climate. Atmosphere, 16(7), 824. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070824

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