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Volume 16
Issue 5
10.3390/atmos16050603
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

Seasonal and Diurnal Variations of Indoor PM2.5 in Six Households in Akure, Nigeria

by
Sawanya Saetae
1,*,
Francis Olawale Abulude
2,
Kazushi Arasaki
1,
Mohammed Mohammed Ndamitso
3,
Akinyinka Akinnusotu
4,
Samuel Dare Oluwagbayide
5,
Yutaka Matsumi
6,
Kazuaki Kawamoto
1,7 and
Tomoki Nakayama
1,7,*
1
Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8521, Nagasaki, Japan
2
Environmental and Sustainable Research Group, Science and Education Development Institute, Akure 340106, Ondo, Nigeria
3
Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Technology, Minna 920101, Niger, Nigeria
4
Department of Science Laboratory Technology, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo 341106, Ondo, Nigeria
5
Department of Agricultural and Bio-Environmental Engineering, Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro 112106, Ogun, Nigeria
6
Institute for Space-Earth Environmental Research, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8602, Aichi, Japan
7
Graduate School of Integrated Science and Technology, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8521, Nagasaki, Japan
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Atmosphere 2025, 16(5), 603; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16050603
Submission received: 5 April 2025 / Revised: 10 May 2025 / Accepted: 13 May 2025 / Published: 16 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Seasonal, diurnal, and site-to-site variations in indoor PM2.5 concentrations in Akure, a city in southwestern Nigeria, are investigated by continuous observations using low-cost sensors in six households. Significant seasonal variations were observed, with the highest monthly PM2.5 concentrations occurring in the dry season, both indoors and outdoors. Significant seasonal variations with higher PM2.5 levels during the dry season were observed, with mean PM2.5 concentrations of 55 μg/m3 in the kitchen and 48 μg/m3 in the living rooms, compared to those during the wet season (23 μg/m3 in the kitchen and 14 μg/m3 in the living rooms). The kitchen-to-outdoor and indoor-to-outdoor PM2.5 ratios increased particularly during the morning and evening hours at several sites, suggesting significant contributions from cooking activities in the kitchen, as well as the transfer of PM2.5 into the living room. An assessment of PM2.5 exposure risks among 32 residents in the studied households revealed higher risks among individuals who cook routinely. This study underscores the importance of addressing indoor air pollution alongside outdoor pollution, particularly by improving ventilation and reducing cooking emissions, to effectively minimize exposure risks.
Keywords: indoor air pollution; particulate matter; low-cost sensor; Sub-Saharan Africa indoor air pollution; particulate matter; low-cost sensor; Sub-Saharan Africa

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Saetae, S.; Abulude, F.O.; Arasaki, K.; Ndamitso, M.M.; Akinnusotu, A.; Oluwagbayide, S.D.; Matsumi, Y.; Kawamoto, K.; Nakayama, T. Seasonal and Diurnal Variations of Indoor PM2.5 in Six Households in Akure, Nigeria. Atmosphere 2025, 16, 603. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16050603

AMA Style

Saetae S, Abulude FO, Arasaki K, Ndamitso MM, Akinnusotu A, Oluwagbayide SD, Matsumi Y, Kawamoto K, Nakayama T. Seasonal and Diurnal Variations of Indoor PM2.5 in Six Households in Akure, Nigeria. Atmosphere. 2025; 16(5):603. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16050603

Chicago/Turabian Style

Saetae, Sawanya, Francis Olawale Abulude, Kazushi Arasaki, Mohammed Mohammed Ndamitso, Akinyinka Akinnusotu, Samuel Dare Oluwagbayide, Yutaka Matsumi, Kazuaki Kawamoto, and Tomoki Nakayama. 2025. "Seasonal and Diurnal Variations of Indoor PM2.5 in Six Households in Akure, Nigeria" Atmosphere 16, no. 5: 603. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16050603

APA Style

Saetae, S., Abulude, F. O., Arasaki, K., Ndamitso, M. M., Akinnusotu, A., Oluwagbayide, S. D., Matsumi, Y., Kawamoto, K., & Nakayama, T. (2025). Seasonal and Diurnal Variations of Indoor PM2.5 in Six Households in Akure, Nigeria. Atmosphere, 16(5), 603. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16050603

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