A Clean Air Plan for Sydney: An Overview of the Special Issue on Air Quality in New South Wales
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Objectives of This Review Paper
- review the existing literature relevant for understanding air quality in New South Wales;
- summarise the key findings of research included in this special issue of Atmosphere (with an emphasis on the implications for policy makers); and
- finally, we outline a number of policy options that we believe should be prioritised, along with supporting evidence from this research and the wider scientific literature.
1.2. Air Quality in Sydney
1.3. Particulate Pollution
1.4. Ozone Pollution
1.5. Major Anthropogenic Sources of Air Pollution
1.6. Natural Emissions and Their Impact on Air Pollution
1.7. Health Impacts of Air Quality in Sydney
1.8. The Influence of Allergenic Pollen
1.9. Managing Air Pollutant Exposure
1.10. Benefits of Air Quality Abatements on Health
1.11. Climate Change and Air Quality
2. Key Findings from the Clean Air and Urban Landscape Hub and Its Collaborators
2.1. Air Quality Measurement Studies
- To answer questions posed by the public in a series of “road-shows” that were organised when CAUL was established;
- To provide novel atmospheric composition measurements that can provide a better understanding of the concentrations of ammonia in the urban atmosphere and the impact of smoke from wildfires, hazard reduction burns, and domestic wood-heaters;
- To finalise and publish the atmospheric composition data from a number of previous measurement campaigns so that these could be used for rigorous testing of the performance of different air quality models over New South Wales.
2.1.1. Publicly Driven Research
- In the first case-study, ambient air quality measurements were made on the roof of a two-story building in the Sydney suburb of Auburn, to evaluate conditions that might represent a typical suburban balcony site. Measurements made at the balcony site were then compared to data from three nearby regulatory air quality monitoring stations [130]. Overall, the air quality at the balcony was similar to that measured at the regulatory sites. Average O3 and PM2.5 concentrations were lowest at the Auburn balcony site; nitrogen oxides were within the range measured at the other sites, and carbon monoxide was highest at Auburn. Considering that O3 and PM2.5 are the pollutants of most concern in Sydney, we concluded that the existing air quality network provides a satisfactory indication of concentrations of outdoor air quality pollutants at the selected “balcony” site at Auburn.
- The second case study examined roadside concentrations of PM2.5 during an intensive three-day campaign. PM2.5 concentration measurements were made in the vicinity of a major road (known to carry heavy traffic) in the Sydney suburb of Randwick. Observed PM2.5 concentrations were compared to regional urban background levels, and the spatial and temporal variations were analysed [131]. This study showed a highly variable spatial distribution of PM2.5 along the main road studied. The average PM2.5 roadside concentration recorded was 13 µgm−3, which was approximately twice the concentration of the nearby regulatory air quality network sites. Those people residing at, (or working for long hours outdoors at), busy roadside locations are, therefore, likely to be at enhanced risk of suffering detrimental health effects associated with air pollution. PM2.5 levels were observed to decrease by 30% at a distance of 50 m away from main road intersections, suggesting that pedestrians and cyclists should use side-streets whenever possible. PM2.5 concentrations were recorded to be 50% higher in the morning rush hour than the afternoon rush hour at roadside locations, implying that joggers and cyclists can reduce their PM2.5 exposure by choosing to exercise in the afternoons rather than the mornings, (although avoiding busy road locations whenever possible is advised).
2.1.2. Novel Atmospheric Composition Measurements in Sydney
- NH3:CO ratios were strongly correlated with traffic volumes on nearby roads, implying that the main source of NH3 at the site is from traffic exhaust fumes, via the operation of catalytic converters. (The NH3:CO ratio will decrease if the emissions are not fresh due to the shorter atmospheric lifetime of NH3 compared to CO.)
- The current emissions inventory for New South Wales (the GMR2008 [20]) underestimates gas-phase NH3 vehicle emissions (when compared to CO) by approximately 40%.
- The urban concentrations observed in this study imply that NH3 is the limiting reagent for production of NH4NO3 aerosol, but for (NH4)2SO4, SO2 is the limiting reagent [135]. This finding provides further evidence to support changing the legislation to reduce the maximum permitted sulfur levels in shipping fuels and vehicle petroleum.
- Are there significant differences in the chemical composition of smoke from domestic wood-heaters and smoke from hazard reduction burns?
- During the “balcony” case-study, which of these sources of wood-smoke caused the greatest exposure to pollutants of concern (e.g., PM2.5) in Auburn?
2.1.3. Findings from Previous Measurement Campaigns in New South Wales
2.2. CAUL Air Quality Modelling Comparison and Modelling Studies
3. Implications for Policy Makers
3.1. Policy Options to Minimise Poor Air Quality Episodes from Smoke Pollution
3.2. Policy Options to Reduce Air Pollution from Traffic
- Prioritising policies that encourage active transport, such as better pedestrian and separated cycle paths [166,167]. Providing better public transport and considering fiscal policies, such as introducing congestion taxes and tax deductions for public transport, whilst removing incentives/tax breaks for company cars.
- Legislation and measures to encourage a more rapid move to low and zero tail-pipe emission vehicles. Australia could follow the lead of nations that have incentivised the uptake of electric vehicles, with some nations also declaring timelines for bans on the sale of new internal combustion engine passenger vehicles, with the aim of improving air quality and reducing greenhouse gas emissions; for example the United Kingdom [168] and France [169]. This will require supporting actions to ensure that the required infrastructure is in place, such as mandating the phasing in of recharge stations at premises licenced to sell petrol and diesel; incentivising the provision of charging infrastructure by the private sector and revising planning instruments and building construction requirements to accommodate infrastructure. The NSW Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Plan released in 2018 [170] commits the state government to co-invest in charging infrastructure on major regional routes and to provide support for charging through strategic land use planning and guides. This plan provides the platform to advocate for further actions to accelerate the move to low and zero tail-pipe emission vehicles. The use of renewable energy to power electric vehicle infrastructure should be maximised to reduce the reliance of fossil fuel power generation. Policies should be put in place to develop a sustainable framework for charging of electric vehicles so as to reduce overall emissions and avoid adverse impacts on the electricity grid [171,172]. Biogenic VOC emissions have been shown to undergo chemical reactions with anthropogenic NOX in the atmosphere leading to a major source of PM2.5 and O3 [148]; however, these natural emissions form particulate matter and O3 after reacting with NOX. Vehicles contribute over 80% of NOX emissions in the Sydney region [13]; hence, the move to zero tail-pipe emission vehicles may also reduce the apparent contribution to PM2.5 and O3 from natural sources of VOCs, in addition to removing the more direct emissions amounting to >20% of PM2.5 [13]. Policies to promote the use of electric vehicles should be co-designed with policies to improve the public transport system and encourage its use.
- During the transition to zero tail-pipe emission vehicles, reduced pollution can be achieved by introducing a further tightening of fuel efficiency, fuel quality, and emission standards, introducing anti-idling control technologies, and by phasing out diesel vehicles [66]. Consideration should be given to addressing non-exhaust emissions, such as tire and brake wear particles and raised dust, which will eventually become more significant as the move to electric vehicles nears completion [165].
- Set an example by limiting government vehicles and public transport to non-fossil-fuel use. As noted above, vehicle exhaust emissions contribute significantly to criteria air pollutant emissions in the Greater Metropolitan Region. The move away from this engine type, towards low/no emission electric or fuel cell vehicles will provide air quality benefits. NSW has a 10 per cent target for new NSW Government general purpose passenger fleet cars purchased or leased by state agencies to be electric or hybrid vehicles by 2020/21 [170]. This target should be increased for future years and consideration given to the transition of public transport. The large-scale use of electric buses has been successful in cities such as Hefei (>600 buses) and Shenzhen (>1000 buses), China [77]. All levels of governments can contribute to this effort via schemes to promote clean transport and energy generation and by leading by example (e.g., by using electric trains, buses, and motor-vehicles and by installing solar power). This ‘early adopter’ policy would help bring forward the installation of new infrastructure (e.g., charging stations) required for lower emissions vehicles and would result in a greater number of low/no emission vehicle models being available. This move needs to be coupled with the provision of electricity from renewable sources.
- Limit motor vehicle engine idling. This has co-benefits for reduced fuel costs and CO2 emissions. It is also particularly effective for air quality since much idling occurs at exposure hotspots such as intersections and car-parks.
3.3. Policy Options to Reduce Other Major Pollution Sources
- Implement policies to further improve energy efficiency and accelerate the transition to clean energy; so, mitigating air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions from traditional coal-fired power generation. This makes sense for economic reasons also, since the cost of renewable energy is falling rapidly.
- Shipping—from January 2020 fuels with less than 0.5% sulphur will be mandated by international shipping laws, but local ferry services like Sydney Ferries are exempt. Modelling has shown large human health benefits could be gained from stricter emissions controls on shipping in Sydney [69]. Thus, a move to overcome the State versus Federal barriers to enforcing ship emissions should be prioritised. Switching to Liquefied Natural Gas or electric, such as is being adopted for ferries in Norway and New Zealand, would see a significant reduction in both greenhouse gases and criteria pollutants [64,65]. Additionally, in-harbour emission for on-board power generation can potentially be mitigated through the provision of electrical mains shore-power for ships when docked.
- Control off-road vehicle emissions, which are growing in contribution due to the absence of non-road diesel emission standards. Also address VOC emissions from the commercial and domestic sector, which are emerging as an increasingly important source of ozone and secondary organic aerosol precursors [173].
3.4. Urban Design to Reduce Exposure
- Look for the best native species for intercepting particulate pollution [134] and with the lowest emissions of allergic pollens and biogenic VOC species most prone to contribute to fine particulate matter and O3 formation.
- Consider further trials of moss beds and moss walls, which have been shown in our preliminary study to be efficient at removing particulate matter from the atmosphere [133].
- As urban density increases, it will be important to ensure that there are sufficient green spaces both for air quality and for other aspects of livability, including for the mitigation of urban heat [174]. Given the importance of PM2.5 in overall air quality, and the evidence of decreasing concentrations of PM2.5 with height above ground (supported by the findings of the CAUL Auburn campaign reported in this special issue [130]), there is evidence to support urban planning that encourages high-rise buildings set in ample green-space. This would also be beneficial for walkability and access to public transport [166,167,175].
- Use planning permissions to avoid building pre-schools, child-care centres, schools, hospitals and aged care homes near major roads or traffic hotspots or in valleys prone to conditions that trap pollution near the ground since proximity to major roads has been shown to increase exposure to air pollutants [78,161,162,176,177,178].
- Similarly, the location of new polluting industries should consider prevailing wind direction and the relative locations of populated areas (as is done through the NSW EPA approval methods).
- Indoor air considerations should not be forgotten in urban design. Design and maintenance at schools should prioritise the transition away from combustion or unflued gas heating, which contributes to poor indoor air quality and is of particular concern in school classrooms. In addition, classrooms which are inadequately ventilated increase exposure to indoor air pollutants [179]. Air pollution in classrooms can impact the health [180], attendance, and even academic performance of students [181]. Airlocks between attached garages and the living zones of residential buildings should be mandated to prevent direct ingress of vehicle exhaust [182].
- Application of modern building codes will provide insulation to reduce cooling/heating costs. Schemes to encourage retro-fitting older properties for similar gains should be encouraged; however, adequate ventilation should also be considered to minimise the build-up of indoor air pollutants and mildew.
- Special consideration should be given to ensuring sufficient urban greenery and the planting of trees/bushes as a mitigation measure for fine particulates in the development associated with the new Western Sydney Airport at Badgerys Creek. This is especially important in the west of Sydney due to meteorological conditions that can trap pollution near the surface and exacerbate poor air quality in the west of the city.
3.5. Air Quality Monitoring, Modelling, and Public Alerts
3.6. Public Outreach, Education, and Community or Individual Actions Designed to Reduce Exposure
- Implementing strategies to encourage cycling and walking. Provide services such as safe cycling maps, bike lockers, and showers to encourage students and staff to walk or cycle to school. Cycling and walking do not contribute to poor air quality like many of the other modes of transport and offer the co-benefit of physical activity. In Sydney, the use of cars to travel to school is associated predominantly with the attitudes of parents, highlighting the need for an integrated (child-parent) approach in education strategies [186].
- Support outreach and incentive programs to motivate the public to move away from the use of wood and other combustion heaters. Community education has been shown to have a significant effect on reducing wood smoke emissions in Australia, (by reducing use of wood-heaters) using health risk as a motivational trigger [187].
- Use outreach and education programs to highlight the risks of both ambient and indoor air pollutants. Studies in Australia [122,125,188] and overseas [189,190] have highlighted the need for public health education with respect to the health risks of indoor air quality, especially as Australians spend the majority of their time indoors. Indoor air quality is unregulated in Australia [191] and therefore, can be very poor. A study in Brisbane showed times of the day likely associated with cooking and commuting were the largest contributors to ultrafine particle exposure in children [192].
- Provide advice for reducing individual exposure. This should include:
- Taking steps to minimise exposure to air pollutants by: exercising away from main roads, or, if this is not possible, then exercising in the early evening when the boundary layer is higher (in preference to the morning) [131] and choosing alternate activities when air quality is forecast/measured to be hazardous.
- The potential benefits of behaviour that can reduce personal exposure to particulate air pollution during hazardous air pollution events. There is only limited evidence that adopting behaviours to limit personal exposure to air pollutants is effective in reducing cardiopulmonary health risks [193]; however, evidence demonstrating positive effects include altering air conditioner settings [194] and wearing a personal respiratory mask [195]. Although more recent research suggests that face masks could raise pollution risks [196].
- Introduce anti-idling zones, especially around at-risk populations such as child-care centres, schools, aged-care homes, and hospitals. On-road vehicle emissions contribute to student air pollutant exposure [161], and morning and evening peaks in exposure have been measured [192]. Anti-idling has been shown to be effective in improving air quality in circumstances where the drop-off and pick-up zone traffic is a major component of local air pollution mix, although this mitigation measure is not as effective where schools are located very close to major highways [161,197,198,199,200]. The anti-idling efforts must be accompanied by appropriate education since community and driver knowledge of health benefits has been shown to increase with education efforts [201].
3.7. Priorities for Further Research
- A thoroughly researched and detailed National Air Pollution Emission Inventory should be funded (that incorporates and extends the existing one), including gridded and time resolved emissions where appropriate and uncertainty estimates, with resources provided for annual updates. A national emissions inventory is crucial for the prioritisation of targets for pollution reduction and for determining effective air quality management policy and predicting future air quality scenarios [202]. There is no national emissions inventory for Australia comparable to those present in the USA [203] or the United Kingdom [204]. The existing Australian National Pollutant Inventory does not capture domestic, area, or line emissions and is, therefore, incomplete [202].
- Research on future air quality, exposure, and associated health impacts taking into account changing energy/fuel use, climate, population growth, and development as well as urbanisation.
- Research into ‘data fusion’ across existing air quality networks and future sensor networks that could include hot spot measurements, satellite retrievals, and model outputs (including chemical transport and land use regression models) for a more comprehensive air quality and exposure mapping, etc. [205].
- Research on pollen speciation, distribution, and health impacts. Support the development of pollen emission methodologies within air quality models to protect populated or otherwise at-risk areas of NSW. A system is being developed for Victoria [207] and could be extended to other regions of Australia.
- Research on the effect of urban greening on air quality. This should include amelioration of particulate matter by vegetation as well as biogenic VOC emissions (in order to improve the agreement between measurements and models [120]). In addition, further research into the atmospheric chemistry that follows biogenic VOC emissions and leads to secondary organic aerosol formation and ozone production should be prioritised.
3.8. Concluding Remarks Regarding Policy Implications
4. Summary and Conclusions
- Publicly driven research by CAUL has provided case-studies in Sydney that can be used to deliver clear and simple messages about air quality to the public, such as:
- The DPIE network of air quality monitoring stations is likely to be fit for purpose, with respect to representing urban background pollutant concentrations in Sydney, (i.e., in areas that are not close to a local pollution source, such as major traffic thoroughfares).
- Roadside pollution levels (such as PM2.5 concentrations) are likely to be significantly higher than non-road side locations, with hotspots at traffic junctions, bus-stops, and drop-off and pick up zones (e.g., at schools).
- Air quality improves rapidly with distance from main roads so that pedestrians and cyclists are advised to use side-streets whenever possible.
- Due to meteorology, roadside pollution is often significantly worse in the morning rush hour than the afternoon rush hour, such that cyclists and joggers can reduce their exposure by choosing to exercise in the afternoons.
- Novel measurements have allowed us to better understand the role of NH3 in the chemistry of aerosol formation in Sydney and to understand the complex chemical mix of toxins that are present in wood-smoke, whether from bushfires or domestic wood-heaters.
- Studies of the amelioration of air pollution in NSW have shown the capacity of urban trees to remove fine particulate matter from the atmosphere, and have highlighted the even greater efficiency of mosses in this capacity.
- A major air quality modelling comparison has enabled the operational air quality forecasting model used for Sydney to be benchmarked against international standards, thereby increasing confidence in the daily forecasts.
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Lelieveld, J.; Evans, J.S.; Fnais, M.; Giannadaki, D.; Pozzer, A. The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale. Nature 2015, 525, 367–371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Australian Bureau of Statistics. What’s Driving Population Growth in Australia’s Cities; Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra, Australia, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Office of Environment and Heritage. Sydney Basin Climate; Office of Environment and Heritage: Sydney, Australia, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Jiang, N.; Scorgie, Y.; Hart, M.; Riley, M.L.; Crawford, J.; Beggs, P.J.; Edwards, G.C.; Chang, L.; Salter, D.; Virgilio, G.D. Visualising the relationships between synoptic circulation type and air quality in Sydney, a subtropical coastal-basin environment. Int. J. Climatol. 2017, 37, 1211–1228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chambers, S.D.; Guérette, E.-A.; Monk, K.; Griffiths, A.D.; Zhang, Y.; Duc, H.; Cope, M.; Emmerson, K.M.; Chang, L.T.; Silver, J.D.; et al. Skill-testing chemical transport models across contrasting atmospheric mixing states using radon-222. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Paton-Walsh, C.; Guérette, É.-A.; Emmerson, K.; Cope, M.; Kubistin, D.; Humphries, R.; Wilson, S.; Buchholz, R.; Jones, N.B.; Griffith, D.W.T.; et al. Urban air quality in a coastal city: Wollongong during the MUMBA campaign. Atmosphere 2018, 9, 500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Department of the Environment and Energy. National Standards for Criteria Air Pollutants in Australia; Department of the Environment and Energy: Canberra, Australia, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Office of Environment and Heritage. Clearing the Air: New South. Wales Air Quality Statement 2017; Office of Environment and Heritage: Sydney, Australia, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Broome, R.A.; Fann, N.; Cristina, T.J.N.; Fulcher, C.; Duc, H.; Morgan, G.G. The health benefits of reducing air pollution in Sydney, Australia. Environ. Res. 2015, 143, 19–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Adrian, G.B.; Williams Gail, M.; Schwartz, J.; Best Trudi, L.; Neller Anne, H.; Petroeschevsky Anna, L.; Simpson Rod, W. The effects of air pollution on hospitalizations for cardiovascular disease in elderly people in Australian and New Zealand cities. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006, 114, 1018–1023. [Google Scholar]
- Hanigan, I.C.; Rolfe, M.I.; Knibbs, L.D.; Salimi, F.; Cowie, C.T.; Heyworth, J.; Marks, G.B.; Guo, Y.M.; Cope, M.; Bauman, A.; et al. All-cause mortality and long-term exposure to low level air pollution in the ‘45 and up study’ cohort, Sydney, Australia, 2006–2015. Environ. Int. 2019, 126, 762–770. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- National Environmental Protection Council. Australian Air Quality NEPM Draft Vairaition Impact Statement for O3, NO2 and SO2; National Environmental Protection Council: Adelaide, Australia, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Office of Environment and Heritage. Air Quality Trends in Sydney; Office of Environment and Heritage: Sydney, Australia, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Office of Environment and Heritage. New South. Wales Air Quality Statement 2018; Office of Environment and Heritage: Sydney, Australia, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Office of Environment and Heritage. NSW Climate and Air—Air Quality—Ozone; Office of Environment and Heritage: Sydney, Australia, 2019. Available online: https://www.soe.epa.nsw.gov.au/all-themes/climate-and-air/air-quality#ozone (accessed on 27 September 2019).
- Wilson, L.A.; Morgan, G.G.; Hanigan, I.C.; Johnston, F.H.; Abu-Rayya, H.; Broome, R.; Gaskin, C.; Jalaludin, B. The impact of heat on mortality and morbidity in the Greater Metropolitan Sydney Region: A case crossover analysis. Environ. Health 2013, 12, 98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- New South Wales Environmental Protection Agency. Tracking Sources of Air Pollution in NSW Communities: Air Emissions Inventory for the Greater Mtropolitan Region of NSW; New South Wales Environmental Protection Agency: Sydney, Australia, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Cohen, D.D.; Stelcer, E.; Garton, D.; Crawford, J. Fine particle characterisation, source apportionment and long-range dust transport into the Sydney Basin: A long term study between 1998 and 2009. Atmos. Pollut. Res. 2011, 2, 182–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cope, M.; Keywood, M.; Emmerson, K.; Galbally, I.; Boast, K.; Chambers, S.; Cheng, M.; Crumeyrolle, S.; Dunne, E.; Fedele, R. Sydney Particle Study–Stage II; The Centre for Australian Weather and Climate Research: Melbourne, Australia, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- New South Wales Environmental Protection Agency. New South. Wales Environment Protection Authority’s Air Emissions Inventory for 2008; New South Wales Environmental Protection Agency: Sydney, Australia, 2017. Available online: https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/air/air-emissions-inventory/air-emissions-inventory-2008 (accessed on 2 September 2019).
- Knibbs, L.D.; Van Donkelaar, A.; Martin, R.V.; Bechle, M.J.; Brauer, M.; Cohen, D.D.; Cowie, C.T.; Dirgawati, M.; Guo, Y.; Hanigan, I.C.; et al. Satellite-based land-use regression for continental-scale long-term ambient PM 2.5 exposure assessment in Australia. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52, 12445–12455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dirgawati, M.; Hinwood, A.; Nedkoff, L.; Hankey, G.J.; Yeap, B.B.; Flicker, L.; Nieuwenhuijsen, M.; Brunekreef, B.; Heyworth, J. Long-term exposure to low air pollutant concentrations and the relationship with all-cause mortality and stroke in older men. Epidemiology 2019, 30, S82–S89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wellenius, G.A.; Burger, M.R.; Coull, B.A. Ambient air pollution and the risk of acute ischemic stroke. Arch. Intern. Med. 2012, 172, 229–234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Abhijith, K.V.; Kumar, P.; Gallagher, J.; McNabola, A.; Baldauf, R.; Pilla, F.; Broderick, B.; Di Sabatino, S.; Pulvirenti, B. Air pollution abatement performances of green infrastructure in open road and built-up street canyon environments–A review. Atmos. Environ. 2017, 162, 71–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Health Organization. Ambient Air Pollution: A Global Assessment of Exposure and Burden of Disease; WHO Document Production Services; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Clean Air for NSW. Air Quality in NSW; Office of Environment and Heritage: Sydney, Australia, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Gupta, P.; Christopher, S.A.; Box, M.A.; Box, G.P. Multi year satellite remote sensing of particulate matter air quality over Sydney, Australia. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2007, 28, 4483–4498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rea, G.; Paton-Walsh, C.; Turquety, S.; Cope, M.; Griffith, D. Impact of the New South Wales fires during October 2013 on regional air quality in eastern Australia. Atmos. Environ. 2016, 131, 150–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Di Virgilio, G.; Hart, M.A.; Jiang, N. Meteorological controls on atmospheric particulate pollution during hazard reduction burns. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2018, 18, 6585–6599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Roberts, S. Have the short-term mortality effects of particulate matter air pollution changed in Australia over the period 1993–2007? Environ. Pollut. 2013, 182, 9–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dominici, F.; Peng, R.D.; Zeger, S.L.; White, R.H.; Samet, J.M. Particulate air pollution and mortality in the United States: Did the risks change from 1987 to 2000? Am. J. Epidemiol. 2007, 166, 880–888. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Keywood, M.; Selleck, P.; Galbally, I.; Lawson, S.; Powell, J.; Cheng, M.; Gillett, R.; Ward, J.; Harnwell, J.; Dunne, E.; et al. Sydney Particle Study 1—Aerosol and Gas Data Collection. v3; Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO): Canberra, Australia, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Keywood, M.; Selleck, P.; Galbally, I.; Lawson, S.; Powell, J.; Cheng, M.; Gillett, R.; Ward, J.; Harnwell, J.; Dunne, E.; et al. Sydney Particle Study 2—Aerosol and Gas Data Collection. v1.; Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO): Canberra, Australia, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Keywood, M.; Selleck, P.; Reisen, F.; Cohen, D.; Chambers, S.; Cheng, M.; Cope, M.; Crumeyrolle, S.; Dunne, E.; Emmerson, K. Comprehensive aerosol and gas data set from the Sydney Particle Study. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Office of Environment and Heritage. Search Air Quality Data; Office of Environment and Heritage: Sydney, Australia, 2018. Available online: https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/AQMS/search.htm (accessed on 10 October 2018).
- Department for Environment. Air Quality Statistics in the UK 1987–2017; Department for Environment: London, UK, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Duc, H.; Azzi, M.; Wahid, H.; Ha, Q.P. Background ozone level in the Sydney basin: Assessment and trend analysis. Background ozone level in the Sydney basin: Assessment and trend analysis. Int. J. Climatol. 2013, 33, 2298–2308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Office of Environment and Heritage. TP02: Air Quality Trends in Sydney; Office of Environment and Heritage: Sydney, Australia, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Paoletti, E.; De Marco, A.; Beddows, D.C.S.; Harrison, R.M.; Manning, W.J. Ozone levels in European and USA cities are increasing more than at rural sites, while peak values are decreasing. Environ. Pollut. 2014, 192, 295–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lefohn, A.S.; Malley, C.S.; Simon, H.; Wells, B.; Xu, X.; Zhang, L.; Wang, T. Responses of human health and vegetation exposure metrics to changes in ozone concentration distributions in the European Union, United States, and China. Atmos. Environ. 2017, 152, 123–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schultz, M.G.; Schroder, S.; Lyapina, O.; Cooper, O.R.; Galbally, I.; Petropavlovskikh, I.; von Schneidemesser, E.; Tanimoto, H.; Elshorbany, Y.; Naja, M.; et al. Tropospheric Ozone Assessment Report: Database and metrics data of global surface ozone observations. Elem. Sci. Anthr. 2017, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mills, G.; Pleijel, H.; Malley, C.S.; Sinha, B.; Cooper, O.R.; Schultz, M.G.; Neufeld, H.S.; Simpson, D.; Sharps, K.; Feng, Z.Z.; et al. Tropospheric Ozone Assessment Report: Present-day tropospheric ozone distribution and trends relevant to vegetation. Elem. Sci. Anthr. 2018, 6, 47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fleming, Z.L.; Doherty, R.M.; von Schneidemesser, E.; Malley, C.S.; Cooper, O.R.; Pinto, J.P.; Colette, A.; Xu, X.B.; Simpson, D.; Schultz, M.G.; et al. Tropospheric Ozone Assessment Report: Present-day ozone distribution and trends relevant to human health. Elem. Sci. Anthr. 2018, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Vingarzan, R. A review of surface ozone background levels and trends. Atmos. Environ. 2004, 38, 3431–3442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hess, G.D.; Tory, K.J.; Cope, M.E.; Lee, S.; Puri, K.; Manins, P.C.; Young, M. The Australian Air Quality Forecasting System. Part II: Case study of a Sydney 7-day photochemical smog event. J. Appl. Meteorol. 2004, 43, 663–679. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hart, M.; de Dear, R.; Hyde, R. A climatology of photochemical smog episodes in Sydney Australia. In Proceedings of the 13th Joint Conference on the Applications of Air Pollution Meteorology with the Air and Waste Management Association, Boston, MA, USA, 23–26 August 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Jiang, N.; Betts, A.; Riley, M. Summarising climate and air quality (Ozone) data on self-organising maps: A Sydney case study. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2016, 188, 103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hart, M.; de Dear, R.; Hyde, R. A synoptic climatology of tropospheric ozone episodes in Sydney, Australia. Int. J. Climatol. 2006, 26, 1635–1649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Linfoot, S.J.; Young, M.; Angri, L.; Quigley, S.; Spencer, J.; Duc, H.; Trieu, T.; Xu, C. State of Knowledge: Ozone; State of NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water: Sydney, Australia, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Keywood, M.; Cope, M.; Meyer, C.P.M.; Iinuma, Y.; Emmerson, K. When smoke comes to town: The impact of biomass burning smoke on air quality. Atmos. Environ. 2015, 121, 13–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnston, F.; Hanigan, I.; Henderson, S.; Morgan, G.; Bowman, D. Extreme air pollution events from bushfires and dust storms and their association with mortality in Sydney, Australia 1994–2007. Environ. Res. 2011, 111, 811–816. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Duc, H.N.; Chang, L.T.-C.; Azzi, M.; Jiang, N. Smoke aerosols dispersion and transport from the 2013 New South Wales (Australia) bushfires. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2018, 190, 428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cowie, C.T.; Garden, F.; Jegasothy, E.; Knibbs, L.D.; Hanigan, I.; Morley, D.; Hansell, A.; Hoek, G.; Marks, G.B. Comparison of model estimates from an intra-city land use regression model with a national satellite-LUR and a regional Bayesian Maximum Entropy model, in estimating NO2 for a birth cohort in Sydney, Australia. Environ. Res. 2019, 174, 24–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Crawford, J.; Cohen, D.D.; Griffiths, A.D.; Chambers, S.D.; Williams, A.G.; Stelcer, E. Impact of atmospheric flow conditions on fine aerosols in Sydney, Australia. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2017, 17, 1746–1759. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pant, P.; Harrison, R.M. Estimation of the contribution of road traffic emissions to particulate matter concentrations from field measurements: A review. Atmos. Environ. 2013, 77, 78–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baldwin, N.; Gilani, O.; Raja, S.; Batterman, S.; Ganguly, R.; Hopke, P.; Berrocal, V.; Robins, T.; Hoogterp, S. Factors affecting pollutant concentrations in the near-road environment. Atmos. Environ. 2015, 115, 223–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gilbert, N.L.; Woodhouse, S.; Stieb, D.M.; Brook, J.R. Ambient nitrogen dioxide and distance from a major highway. Sci. Total Environ. 2003, 312, 43–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Padró-Martínez, L.T.; Patton, A.P.; Trull, J.B.; Zamore, W.; Brugge, D.; Durant, J.L. Mobile monitoring of particle number concentration and other traffic-related air pollutants in a near-highway neighborhood over the course of a year. Atmos. Environ. 2012, 61, 253–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Roorda-Knape, M.C.; Janssen, N.A.H.; de Hartog, J.; Van Vliet, P.H.N.; Harssema, H.; Brunekreef, B. Traffic related air pollution in city districts near motorways. Sci. Total Environ. 1999, 235, 339–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, Y.; Hinds, W.C.; Kim, S.; Sioutas, C. Concentration and size distribution of ultrafine particles near a major highway. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 2002, 52, 1032–1042. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharma, A.; Massey, D.D.; Taneja, A. A study of horizontal distribution pattern of particulate and gaseous pollutants based on ambient monitoring near a busy highway. Urban Clim. 2018, 24, 643–656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Achakulwisut, P.; Brauer, M.; Hystad, P.; Anenberg, S.C. Global, national, and urban burdens of paediatric asthma incidence attributable to ambient NO2 pollution: Estimates from global datasets. Lancet Planet. Health 2019, 3, e166–e178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hime, N.J.; Marks, G.B.; Cowie, C.T. A comparison of the health effects of ambient particulate matter air pollution from five emission sources. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Khreis, H.; Kelly, C.; Tate, J.; Parslow, R.; Lucas, K.; Nieuwenhuijsen, M. Exposure to traffic-related air pollution and risk of development of childhood asthma: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ. Int. 2017, 100, 1–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Baumann, L.M.; Robinson, C.L.; Combe, J.M.; Gomez, A.; Romero, K.; Gilman, R.H.; Cabrera, L.; Hansel, N.N.; Wise, R.A.; Breysse, P.N.; et al. Effects of distance from a heavily transited avenue on asthma and atopy in a periurban shantytown in Lima, Peru. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2011, 127, 875–882. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Department of the Environment and Energy. Better Fuel for Cleaner Air: Discussion Paper; The Australian Government: Canberra, Australia, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Anenberg, S.C.; Miller, J.; Minjares, R.; Du, L.; Henze, D.K.; Lacey, F.; Malley, C.S.; Emberson, L.; Franco, V.; Klimont, Z.; et al. Impacts and mitigation of excess diesel-related NOx emissions in 11 major vehicle markets. Nature 2017, 545, 467–471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beer, T.; Carras, J.; Worth, D.; Coplin, N.; Campbell, P.K.; Jalaludin, B.; Angove, D.; Azzi, M.; Brown, S.; Campbell, I.; et al. The health impacts of ethanol blend petrol. Energies 2011, 4, 352–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Broome, R.A.; Cope, M.E.; Goldsworthy, B.; Goldsworthy, L.; Emmerson, K.; Jegasothy, E.; Morgan, G.G. The mortality effect of ship-related fine particulate matter in the Sydney greater metropolitan region of NSW, Australia. Environ. Int. 2016, 87, 85–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ministerial Forum on Vehicle Emissions. Vehicle Emissions Standards for Cleaner Air: Draft Regulation Impact Statement; Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, Australia, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Benbrahim-Tallaa, L.; Baan, R.A.; Grosse, Y.; Lauby-Secretan, B.; El Ghissassi, F.; Bouvard, V.; Guha, N.; Loomis, D.; Straif, K.; Group, I.A.f.R.o.C.M.W. Carcinogenicity of Diesel-Engine and Gasoline-Engine Exhausts and Some Nitroarenes; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Oberdörster, G.; Oberdörster, E.; Oberdörster, J. Nanotoxicology: An emerging discipline evolving from studies of ultrafine particles. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113, 823–839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Australian Automobile Association. The Real World Driving Emissions Test; Australian Automobile Association: Canberra, Australia, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Merz, S.K. Cost abatement curves for air emission reduction actions. In Report Prepared for the Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (DECCW) New South; DECCW: Sydney, Australia, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- White, L.; Miles, A.; Boocock, C.; Cooper, J.G.; Mills, S. A Comparison of Real Driving Emissions from Euro 6 Diesel Passenger Cars with Zero Emission Vehicles and Their Impact on Urban Air Quality Compliance; CONCAWE Reports; CONCAWE: Brussels, Belgium, 2018; pp. 1–64. [Google Scholar]
- Salvo, A.; Geiger, F.M. Reduction in local ozone levels in urban São Paulo due to a shift from ethanol to gasoline use. Nat. Geosci. 2014, 7, 450–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Li, J.-Q. Battery-electric transit bus developments and operations: A review. Int. J. Sustain. Transp. 2016, 10, 157–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Roosbroeck, S.; Wichmann, J.; Janssen, N.A.H.; Hoek, G.; van Wijnen, J.H.; Lebret, E.; Brunekreef, B. Long-term personal exposure to traffic-related air pollution among school children, a validation study. Sci. Total Environ. 2006, 368, 565–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Australian Maritime Safety Authority. Sydney Harbour Cruise Ship Emissions; Australian Maritime Safety Authority: Canberra, Australia, 2019. Available online: https://www.amsa.gov.au/marine-environment/air-pollution/sydney-harbour-cruise-ship-emissions (accessed on 1 September 2019).
- US Energy Information Administration. Today in Energy; US Energy Information Administration: Washington, DC, USA, 2019. Available online: https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=38012 (accessed on 8 December 2019).
- Broome, R.A.; Johnston, F.H.; Horsley, J.; Morgan, G.G. A rapid assessment of the impact of hazard reduction burning around Sydney, May 2016. Med. J. Aust. 2016, 205, 407–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnston, F.H.; Hanigan, I.C.; Henderson, S.B.; Morgan, G.G.; Portner, T.; Williamson, G.J.; Bowman, D.M.J.S. Creating an integrated historical record of extreme particulate air pollution events in Australian cities from 1994 to 2007. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 2011, 61, 390–398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bowman, D. Australian landscape burning: A continental and evolutionary perspective. In Fire in Ecosystems of South-West Western Australia: Impacts and Management; Abbott, I., Burrows, N., Eds.; Backhuys Publishers: Leiden, The Netherlands, 2003; pp. 107–118. [Google Scholar]
- Gill, A.M. Fire and the Australian flora: A review. Aust. For. 1975, 38, 4–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Russell-Smith, J.; Cook, G.D.; Cooke, P.M.; Edwards, A.C.; Lendrum, M.; Meyer, C.; Whitehead, P.J. Managing fire regimes in north Australian savannas: Applying Aboriginal approaches to contemporary global problems. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2013, 11, e55–e63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Boer, M.M.; Sadler, R.J.; Wittkuhn, R.S.; McCaw, L.; Grierson, P.F. Long-term impacts of prescribed burning on regional extent and incidence of wildfires—Evidence from 50 years of active fire management in SW Australian forests. For. Ecol. Manag. 2009, 259, 132–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Haikerwal, A.; Reisen, F.; Sim, M.R.; Abramson, M.J.; Meyer, C.P.; Johnston, F.H.; Dennekamp, M. Impact of smoke from prescribed burning: Is it a public health concern? J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 2015, 65, 592–598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chan, Y.C.; McTainsh, G.; Leys, J.; McGowan, H.; Tews, K. Influence of the 23 October 2002 dust storm on the air quality of four Australian cities. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2005, 164, 329–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leys, J.F.; Heidenreich, S.K.; Strong, C.L.; McTainsh, G.H.; Quigley, S. PM10 concentrations and mass transport during “Red Dawn”—Sydney 23 September 2009. Aeolian Res. 2011, 3, 327–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Li, X.; Ge, L.; Dong, Y.; Chang, H.C. Estimating the greatest dust storm in eastern Australia with MODIS satellite images. In Proceedings of the International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Honolulu, HI, USA, 25–30 July 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Nguyen, H.D.; Riley, M.; Leys, J.; Salter, D. Dust storm event of February 2019 in central and east coast of Australia and evidence of long-range transport to New Zealand. In Proceedings of the 24th International Clean Air and Environment Conference, Queenstown, New Zealand, 16–18 September 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Australian Burden of Disease Study: Impact and Causes of Illness and Death in Australia 2011; Australian Institute of Health and Welfare: Canberra, Australia, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Landrigan, P.J.; Fuller, R.; Acosta, N.J.; Adeyi, O.; Arnold, R.; Baldé, A.B.; Bertollini, R.; Bose-O’Reilly, S.; Boufford, J.I.; Breysse, P.N. The Lancet Commission on pollution and health. Lancet 2018, 391, 462–512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schraufnagel, D.E.; Balmes, J.; Cowl, C.T.; De Matteis, S.; Jung, S.-H.; Mortimer, K.; Perez-Padilla, R.; Rice, M.B.; Riojas-Rodroguez, H.; Sood, A. Air pollution and non-communicable diseases: A review by the forum of international respiratory societies’ environmental committee. Part 2: Air pollution and organ systems. Chest 2018, 155, 417–426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Schraufnagel, D.E.; Balmes, J.R.; Cowl, C.T.; De Matteis, S.; Jung, S.-H.; Mortimer, K.; Perez-Padilla, R.; Rice, M.B.; Riojas-Rodriguez, H.; Sood, A.; et al. Air pollution and noncommunicable diseases: A review by the forum of international respiratory societies’ environmental committee, Part 1: The damaging effects of air pollution. Chest 2019, 155, 409–416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Wilson, S.R.; Madronich, S.; Longstreth, J.; Solomon, K.R. Interactive effects of changing stratospheric ozone and climate on tropospheric composition and air quality, and the consequences for human and ecosystem health. Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. 2019, 18, 775–803. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bowatte, G.; Lodge, C.J.; Knibbs, L.D.; Erbas, B.; Perret, J.L.; Jalaludin, B.; Morgan, G.G.; Bui, D.S.; Giles, G.G.; Hamilton, G.S.; et al. Traffic related air pollution and development and persistence of asthma and low lung function. Environ. Int. 2018, 113, 170–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Knibbs, L.D.; Cortés de Waterman, A.M.; Toelle, B.G.; Guo, Y.; Denison, L.; Jalaludin, B.; Marks, G.B.; Williams, G.M. The Australian Child Health and Air Pollution Study (ACHAPS): A national population-based cross-sectional study of long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution, asthma, and lung function. Environ. Int. 2018, 120, 394–403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salimi, F.; Morgan, G.; Rolfe, M.; Samoli, E.; Cowie, C.T.; Hanigan, I.; Knibbs, L.; Cope, M.; Johnston, F.H.; Guo, Y.; et al. Long-term exposure to low concentrations of air pollutants and hospitalisation for respiratory diseases: A prospective cohort study in Australia. Environ. Int. 2018, 121, 415–420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bass, D.; Morgan, G. A three year (1993–1995) calendar of pollen and Alternaria mould in the atmosphere of south western Sydney. Grana 1997, 36, 293–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stennett, P.J.; Beggs, P.J. Pollen in the atmosphere of Sydney, Australia, and relationships with meteorological parameters. Grana 2004, 43, 209–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hart, M.A.; de Dear, R.; Beggs, P.J. A synoptic climatology of pollen concentrations during the six warmest months in Sydney, Australia. Int. J. Biometeorol. 2007, 51, 209–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lindstrom, S.J.; Silver, J.D.; Sutherland, M.F.; Treloar, A.B.A.; Newbigin, E.; McDonald, C.F.; Douglass, J.A. Thunderstorm asthma outbreak of November 2016: A natural disaster requiring planning. Med. J. Aust. 2017, 207, 235–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grundstein, A.; Shepherd, M.; Miller, P.; Sarnat, S.E. The role of mesoscale-convective processes in explaining the 21 November 2016 epidemic thunderstorm asthma event in Melbourne, Australia. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol. 2017, 56, 1337–1343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andrew, E.; Nehme, Z.; Bernard, S.; Abramson, M.J.; Newbigin, E.; Piper, B.; Dunlop, J.; Holman, P.; Smith, K. Stormy weather: A retrospective analysis of demand for emergency medical services during epidemic thunderstorm asthma. Bmj Br. Med. J. 2017, 359, j5636. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Beggs, P.J. Climate change and allergy in Australia: An innovative, high-income country, at potential risk. Public Health Res. Pract. 2018, 28, e2841828. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Davies, M.; Kearney, B.; Morison, A. Air pollution reduction measures in the sydney GMR using marginal abatement cost curves. WIT Trans. Ecol. Environ. 2012, 157, 423–434. [Google Scholar]
- New South Wales Environmental Protection Agency. Clean Air for NSW: Consultation Paper; New South Wales Environmental Protection Agency: Sydney, Australia, 2016. Available online: https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/-/media/epa/corporate-site/resources/air/clean-air-nsw-160415.pdf?la=en&hash=EEF491BFDC5F5C7438AAA62C956B4F8CD392E7A2 (accessed on 24 October 2019).
- Lee, A.C.K.; Maheswaran, R. The health benefits of urban green spaces: A review of the evidence. J. Public Health 2011, 33, 212–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Irga, P.J.; Burchett, M.D.; Torpy, F.R. Does urban forestry have a quantitative effect on ambient air quality in an urban environment? Atmos. Environ. 2015, 120, 173–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Vos, P.E.J.; Maiheu, B.; Vankerkom, J.; Janssen, S. Improving local air quality in cities: To tree or not to tree? Environ. Pollut. 2013, 183, 113–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Janhäll, S. Review on urban vegetation and particle air pollution—Deposition and dispersion. Atmos. Environ. 2015, 105, 130–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eisenman, T.S.; Churkina, G.; Jariwala, S.P.; Kumar, P.; Lovasi, G.S.; Pataki, D.E.; Weinberger, K.R.; Whitlow, T.H. Urban trees, air quality, and asthma: An interdisciplinary review. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2019, 187, 47–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hewitt, C.N.; Ashworth, K.; MacKenzie, A.R. Using green infrastructure to improve urban air quality (GI4AQ). Ambio 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Calfapietra, C.; Fares, S.; Manes, F.; Morani, A.; Sgrigna, G.; Loreto, F. Role of Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds (BVOC) emitted by urban trees on ozone concentration in cities: A review. Environ. Pollut. 2013, 183, 71–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Churkina, G.; Grote, R.; Butler, T.M.; Lawrence, M. Natural selection? Picking the right trees for urban greening. Environ. Sci. Policy 2015, 47, 12–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Grote, R.; Samson, R.; Alonso, R.; Amorim, J.H.; Cariñanos, P.; Churkina, G.; Fares, S.; Thiec, D.L.; Niinemets, Ü.; Mikkelsen, T.N.; et al. Functional traits of urban trees: Air pollution mitigation potential. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2016, 14, 543–550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saunders, S.; Dade, E.; van Niel, K. An Urban Forest Effects (UFORE) model study of the integrated effects of vegetation on local air pollution in the Western Suburbs of Perth, WA. In Proceedings of the 19th International Congress on Modelling and Simulation (MODSIM2011), Perth, Australia, 12–16 December 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Saunders, S.; Todd, D. Assessing aromatic compound impacts on photochemical ozone generation utilizing an updated Perth airshed model. In Proceedings of the MODSIM 2005 International Congress on Modelling and Simulation, Melbourne, Australia, 12–15 December 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Emmerson, K.M.; Galbally, I.E.; Guenther, A.B.; Paton-Walsh, C.; Guerette, E.A.; Cope, M.E.; Keywood, M.D.; Lawson, S.J.; Molloy, S.B.; Dunne, E.; et al. Current estimates of biogenic emissions from eucalypts uncertain for southeast Australia. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2016, 16, 6997–7011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Reisen, F.; Powell, J.C.; Dennekamp, M.; Johnston, F.H.; Wheeler, A.J. Is remaining indoors an effective way of reducing exposure to fine particulate matter during biomass burning events? J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 2019, 69, 611–622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Molloy, S.B.; Cheng, M.; Galbally, I.E.; Keywood, M.D.; Lawson, S.J.; Powell, J.C.; Gillett, R.; Dunne, E.; Selleck, P.W. Indoor air quality in typical temperate zone Australian dwellings. Atmos. Environ. 2012, 54, 400–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lawson, S.J.; Galbally, I.E.; Powell, J.C.; Keywood, M.D.; Molloy, S.B.; Cheng, M.; Selleck, P.W. The effect of proximity to major roads on indoor air quality in typical Australian dwellings. Atmos. Environ. 2011, 45, 2252–2259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hinwood, A.L.; Rodriguez, C.; Runnion, T.; Farrar, D.; Murray, F.; Horton, A.; Glass, D.; Sheppeard, V.; Edwards, J.W.; Denison, L.; et al. Risk factors for increased BTEX exposure in four Australian cities. Chemosphere 2007, 66, 533–541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheng, M.; Galbally, I.E.; Molloy, S.B.; Selleck, P.W.; Keywood, M.D.; Lawson, S.J.; Powell, J.C.; Gillett, R.W.; Dunne, E. Factors controlling volatile organic compounds in dwellings in Melbourne, Australia. Indoor Air 2016, 26, 219–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ji, F.; Evans, J.P.; Di Luca, A.; Jiang, N.; Olson, R.; Fita, L.; Argüeso, D.; Chang, L.T.C.; Scorgie, Y.; Riley, M. Projected change in characteristics of near surface temperature inversions for southeast Australia. Clim. Dyn. 2018, 52, 1487–1503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, J.X.; Gao, Y.; Luo, K.; Leung, L.R.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, K.; Fan, J.R. Impacts of compound extreme weather events on ozone in the present and future. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2018, 18, 9861–9877. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jacob, D.J.; Winner, D.A. Effect of climate change on air quality. Atmos. Environ. 2009, 43, 51–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dean, A.; Green, D. Climate change, air pollution and human health in Sydney, Australia: A review of the literature. Environ. Res. Lett. 2018, 13, 053003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Simmons, J.B.; Paton-Walsh, C.; Phillips, F.; Naylor, T.; Guérette, É.-A.; Burden, S.; Dominick, D.; Forehead, H.; Graham, J.; Keatley, T.; et al. Understanding spatial variability of air quality in Sydney: Part 1—A suburban balcony case study. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wadlow, I.; Paton-Walsh, C.; Forehead, H.; Perez, P.; Amirghasemi, M.; Guérette, É.-A.; Gendek, O.; Kumar, P. Understanding spatial variability of air quality in Sydney: Part 2—A roadside case study. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Morawska, L.; Thai, P.K.; Liu, X.; Asumadu-Sakyi, A.; Ayoko, G.; Bartonova, A.; Bedini, A.; Chai, F.; Christensen, B.; Dunbabin, M.; et al. Applications of low-cost sensing technologies for air quality monitoring and exposure assessment: How far have they gone? Environ. Int. 2018, 116, 286–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Haynes, A.; Popek, R.; Boles, M.; Paton-Walsh, C.; Robinson, S.A. Roadside moss turfs in South East Australia capture more particulate matter along an urban gradient than a common native tree species. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Popek, R.; Haynes, A.; Przybysz, A.; Robinson, S.A. How much does weather matter? Effects of rain and wind on PM accumulation by four species of Australian native trees. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Phillips, F.A.; Naylor, T.; Forehead, H.; Griffith, D.W.T.; Kirkwood, J.; Paton-Walsh, C. Vehicle ammonia emissions measured in an urban environment in Sydney, Australia, using open path fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Martin, R.V. Satellite remote sensing of surface air quality. Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42, 7823–7843. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Knibbs, L.D.; Hewson, M.G.; Bechle, M.J.; Marshall, J.D.; Barnett, A.G. A national satellite-based land-use regression model for air pollution exposure assessment in Australia. Environ. Res. 2014, 135, 204–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Pereira, G.; Lee, H.J.; Bell, M.; Regan, A.; Malacova, E.; Mullins, B.; Knibbs, L.D. Development of a model for particulate matter pollution in Australia with implications for other satellite-based models. Environ. Res. 2017, 159, 9–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Guérette, É.A.; Paton-Walsh, C.; Galbally, I.; Molloy, S.; Lawson, S.; Kubistin, D.; Buchholz, R.; Griffith, D.W.; Langenfelds, R.L.; Krummel, P.B.; et al. Composition of clean marine air and biogenic influences on VOCs during the MUMBA campaign. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Paton-Walsh, C.; Guérette, E.A.; Kubistin, D.; Humphries, R.; Wilson, S.R.; Dominick, D.; Galbally, I.; Buchholz, R.R.; Bhujel, M.; Chambers, S.; et al. The MUMBA Campaign: Measurements of Urban, Marine and Biogenic Air. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 2017, 9, 349–362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Keywood, M.; Hibberd, M.; Selleck, P.W.; Cohen, D.D.; Stelcer, E.; Atanacio, A.J.; Scorgie, Y.; Chang, L.T.-C. Sources of particulate matter in the Hunter Valley, New South Wales, Australia. Atmosphere 2019. submitted. [Google Scholar]
- Dominick, D.; Wilson, S.R.; Paton-Walsh, C.; Humphries, R.; Guérette, É.-A.; Keywood, M.; Selleck, P.; Kubistin, D.; Marwick, B. Particle formation in a complex environment. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Utembe, S.R.; Rayner, P.J.; Silver, J.D.; Guérette, E.-A.; Fisher, J.A.; Emmerson, K.M.; Cope, M.; Paton-Walsh, C.; Griffiths, A.D.; Duc, H.; et al. Hot summers: Effect of extreme temperatures on ozone in Sydney, Australia. Atmosphere 2018, 9, 466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hibberd, M.; Keywood, M.; Selleck, P.; Cohen, D.; Stelcer, E.; Scorgie, Y.; Chang, L. Lower Hunter Particle Characterisation Study; Final Report; NSW Environment Protection Authority: Sydney, Australia, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Hibberd, M.; Selleck, P.; Keywood, M.; Cohen, D.; Stelcer, E.; Atanacio, A. Upper Hunter Valley Particle Characterization Study; Final Report; NSW Office of Environment and Heritage and the NSW Department of Health: Sydney, Australia, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Chang, L.T.-C.; Duc, H.N.; Scorgie, Y.; Trieu, T.; Monk, K.; Jiang, N. Performance evaluation of CCAM-CTM regional airshed modelling for the New South Wales Greater Metropolitan Region. Atmosphere 2018, 9, 486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Monk, K.; Guérette, E.-A.; Paton-Walsh, C.; Silver, J.D.; Emmerson, K.M.; Utembe, S.R.; Zhang, Y.; Griffiths, A.D.; Chang, L.T.-C.; Duc, H.N.; et al. Evaluation of regional air quality models over Sydney and Australia: Part 1—Meteorological model comparison. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chang, L.T.-C.; Scorgie, Y.; Duc, H.N.; Monk, K.; Fuchs, D.; Trieu, T. Major source contributions to ambient PM2.5 and exposures within the New South Wales Greater Metropolitan Region. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Duc, H.N.; Chang, L.T.-C.; Trieu, T.; Salter, D.; Scorgie, Y. Source contributions to ozone formation in the New South Wales Greater Metropolitan Region, Australia. Atmosphere 2018, 9, 443. [Google Scholar]
- Beaupark, S.; Guérette, É.-A.; Paton-Walsh, C.; Bursill, L.; Chambers, S.D.; Dadd, L.; Miller, M.; Tobin, C.; Hughes, M.; Woodward, E. Understanding seasonal variability of air quality in Sydney using indigenous knowledge of weather cycles. Atmosphere 2020. submitted. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, Y.; Wang, K.; Jena, C.; Paton-Walsh, C.; Guérette, É.-A.; Utembe, S.; Silver, J.D.; Keywood, M. Multiscale applications of two online-coupled meteorology-chemistry models during recent field campaigns in Australia, Part II: Comparison of WRF/Chem and WRF/Chem-ROMS and impacts of air-sea interactions and boundary conditions. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zhang, Y.; Jena, C.; Wang, K.; Paton-Walsh, C.; Guérette, É.-A.; Utembe, S.; Silver, J.D.; Keywood, M. Multiscale applications of two online-coupled meteorology-chemistry models during recent field campaigns in Australia, Part I: Model description and WRF/Chem-ROMS evaluation using surface and satellite data and sensitivity to spatial grid resolutions. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Guérette, E.-A.; Monk, K.; Cope, M.; Emmerson, K.; Griffiths, A.; Silver, J.D.; Utembe, S.; Chang, L.T.-C.; Duc, H.N.; Scorgie, Y.; et al. Evaluation of regional air quality models over Sydney, Australia: Part 2 Model performance for surface ozone and PM2.5. Atmosphere 2020. in preparation. [Google Scholar]
- Im, U.; Bianconi, R.; Solazzo, E.; Kioutsioukis, I.; Badia, A.; Balzarini, A.; Baró, R.; Bellasio, R.; Brunner, D.; Chemel, C. Evaluation of operational on-line-coupled regional air quality models over Europe and North America in the context of AQMEII phase 2. Part. I: Ozone. Atmos. Environ. 2015, 115, 404–420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Galbally, I.E.; Molloy, S.B.; Keywood, M.D. An analysis of uncertainty applied to the air quality emissions inventory for the greater metropolitan region of New South Wales, Australia. Atmosphere 2019. in preparation. [Google Scholar]
- Up Study Collaborators. Cohort profile: The 45 and up study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2007, 37, 941–947. [Google Scholar]
- Desservettaz, M.; Phillips, F.; Naylor, T.; Price, O.; Samson, S.; Kirkwood, J.; Paton-Walsh, C. Air quality impacts of smoke from hazard reduction burns and domestic wood heating in western Sydney. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cope, M.; Lee, S.; Meyer, M.; Reisen, F.; Trindade, C.; Sullivan, A.; Surawski, N.; Wain, A.; Smith, D.; Ebert, B.; et al. Smoke Emission and Transport Modelling; CSIRO for the State of Victoria Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning Victoria: Victoria, Australia, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- New South Wales Environmental Protection Agency. New Wood Smoke Amendment Regulation Now in Force; New South Wales Environmental Protection Agency: Sydney, Australia, 2017. Available online: https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/air/reducing-wood-smoke-emissions/new-wood-smoke-amendment-regulation-now-in-force (accessed on 2 September 2019).
- Pinault, L.; Tjepkema, M.; Crouse, D.L.; Weichenthal, S.; van Donkelaar, A.; Martin, R.V.; Brauer, M.; Chen, H.; Burnett, R.T. Risk estimates of mortality attributed to low concentrations of ambient fine particulate matter in the Canadian community health survey cohort. Environ. Health 2016, 15, 18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Spira-Cohen, A.; Chen, L.C.; Kendall, M.; Sheesley, R.; Thurston, G.D. Personal exposures to traffic-related particle pollution among children with asthma in the South Bronx, NY. J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 2009, 20, 446–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Van Roosbroeck, S.; Jacobs, J.; Janssen, N.A.H.; Oldenwening, M.; Hoek, G.; Brunekreef, B. Long-term personal exposure to PM2.5, soot and NOx in children attending schools located near busy roads, a validation study. Atmos. Environ. 2007, 41, 3381–3394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schneider, I.L.; Teixeira, E.C.; Oliveira, L.F.S.; Wiegand, F. Atmospheric particle number concentration and size distribution in a traffic-impacted area. Atmos. Pollut. Res. 2015, 6, 877–885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goel, A.; Kumar, P. Characterisation of nanoparticle emissions and exposure at traffic intersections through fast-response mobile and sequential measurements. Atmos. Environ. 2015, 107, 374–390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- New South Wales Environmental Protection Agency. Clean Air for NSW: Vehicle Emissions; New South Wales Environmental Protection Agency: Sydney, Australia, 2017. Available online: https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/-/media/epa/corporate-site/resources/air/vehicle-emissions.pdf?la=en&hash=CC1CC350EC56C59507CAE2A85899E8E98566224B (accessed on 1 October 2019).
- Cowie, C.T.; Ding, D.; Rolfe, M.I.; Mayne, D.J.; Jalaludin, B.; Bauman, A.; Morgan, G.G. Neighbourhood walkability, road density and socio-economic status in Sydney, Australia. Environ. Health 2016, 15, 58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Giles-Corti, B.; Vernez-Moudon, A.; Reis, R.; Turrell, G.; Dannenberg, A.L.; Badland, H.; Foster, S.; Lowe, M.; Sallis, J.F.; Stevenson, M. City planning and population health: A global challenge. Lancet 2016, 388, 2912–2924. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Department for Environment. Clean Air Strategy; Department for Environment: London, UK, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Ministère de la Transition Écologique et Solidaire. Plan Climat: 1 Planéte, 1 Plan; Republique Française: Paris, France, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- NSW Government. NSW Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Plan, Future Transport 2056; NSW Government: Sydney, Australia, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Van Vliet, O.; Brouwer, A.S.; Kuramochi, T.; van den Broek, M.; Faaij, A. Energy use, cost and CO2 emissions of electric cars. J. Power Sources 2011, 196, 2298–2310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Liu, J. Electric vehicle charging infrastructure assignment and power grid impacts assessment in Beijing. Energy Policy 2012, 51, 544–557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McDonald, B.C.; de Gouw, J.A.; Gilman, J.B.; Jathar, S.H.; Akherati, A.; Cappa, C.D.; Jimenez, J.L.; Lee-Taylor, J.; Hayes, P.L.; McKeen, S.A.; et al. Volatile chemical products emerging as largest petrochemical source of urban organic emissions. Science 2018, 359, 760–764. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nieuwenhuijsen, M.J.; Khreis, H.; Triguero-Mas, M.; Gascon, M.; Dadvand, P. Fifty shades of green. Epidemiology 2017, 28, 63–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Stevenson, M.; Thompson, J.; de Sá, T.H.; Ewing, R.; Mohan, D.; McClure, R.; Roberts, I.; Tiwari, G.; Giles-Corti, B.; Sun, X. Land use, transport, and population health: Estimating the health benefits of compact cities. Lancet 2016, 388, 2925–2935. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Giles, L.V.; Barn, P.; Künzli, N.; Romieu, I.; Mittleman, M.A.; van Eeden, S.; Allen, R.; Carlsten, C.; Stieb, D.; Noonan, C. From good intentions to proven interventions: Effectiveness of actions to reduce the health impacts of air pollution. Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 119, 29–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Royal College of Physicians. Every Breath We Take: The Lifelong Impact of Air Pollution; Report of a Working Party; Royal College of Physicians: London, UK, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Health Effects Institute. Traffic-Related Air Pollution: A Critical Review of the Literature on Emissions, Exposure, and Health Effects; Panel on the Health Effects of Traffic-Related Air Pollution, Health Effects Institute: Boston, MA, USA, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, S.C.; Chang, M. Indoor and outdoor air quality investigation at schools in Hong Kong. Chemosphere 2000, 41, 109–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marks, G.B.; Ezz, W.; Aust, N.; Toelle, B.G.; Xuan, W.; Belousova, E.; Cosgrove, C.; Jalaludin, B.; Smith, W.T. Respiratory health effects of exposure to low-NOx unflued gas heaters in the classroom: A double-blind, cluster-randomized, crossover study. Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 118, 1476–1482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Annesi-Maesano, I.; Baiz, N.; Banerjee, S.; Rudnai, P.; Rive, S.; the SINPHONIE Group. Indoor air quality and sources in schools and related health effects. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part B 2013, 16, 491–550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mallach, G.; St-Jean, M.; MacNeill, M.; Aubin, D.; Wallace, L.; Shin, T.; Van Ryswyk, K.; Kulka, R.; You, H.; Fugler, D. Exhaust ventilation in attached garages improves residential indoor air quality. Indoor Air 2017, 27, 487–499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Guillemin, M. Design of Air Quality Communication Tools; NYU: New York, NY, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Chen, R.; Wang, X.; Meng, X.; Hua, J.; Zhou, Z.; Chen, B.; Kan, H. Communicating air pollution-related health risks to the public: An application of the Air Quality Health Index in Shanghai, China. Environ. Int. 2013, 51, 168–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Borbet, T.C.; Gladson, L.A.; Cromar, K.R. Assessing air quality index awareness and use in Mexico City. BMC Public Health 2018, 18, 538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wen, L.M.; Fry, D.; Rissel, C.; Dirkis, H.; Balafas, A.; Merom, D. Factors associated with children being driven to school: Implications for walk to school programs. Health Educ. Res. 2008, 23, 325–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hine, D.W.; Bhullar, N.; Marks, A.D.G.; Kelly, P.; Scott, J.G. Comparing the effectiveness of education and technology in reducing wood smoke pollution: A field experiment. J. Environ. Psychol. 2011, 31, 282–288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Badland, H.M.; Duncan, M.J. Perceptions of air pollution during the work-related commute by adults in Queensland, Australia. Atmos. Environ. 2009, 43, 5791–5795. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, X.; Zhu, H.; Hu, Y.; Feng, S.; Chu, Y.; Wu, Y.; Wang, C.; Zhang, Y.; Yuan, Z.; Lu, Y. Public’s health risk awareness on urban air pollution in Chinese megacities: The cases of Shanghai, Wuhan and Nanchang. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016, 13, 845. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Egondi, T.; Kyobutungi, C.; Ng, N.; Muindi, K.; Oti, S.; van de Vijver, S.; Ettarh, R.; Rocklöv, J. Community perceptions of air pollution and related health risks in Nairobi slums. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 4851–4868. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Department of the Environment and Energy. Indoor Air. Environment Protection Topics Unknown. Available online: http://www.environment.gov.au/protection/air-quality/indoor-air (accessed on 15 October 2018).
- Mazaheri, M.; Clifford, S.; Jayaratne, R.; Megat Mokhtar, M.A.; Fuoco, F.; Buonanno, G.; Morawska, L. School children’s personal exposure to ultrafine particles in the urban environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 113–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Laumbach, R.; Meng, Q.; Kipen, H. What can individuals do to reduce personal health risks from air pollution? J. Thorac. Dis. 2015, 7, 96–107. [Google Scholar]
- Chuang, H.C.; Lin, L.Y.; Hsu, Y.W.; Ma, C.M.; Chuang, K.J. In-car particles and cardiovascular health: An air conditioning-based intervention study. Sci. Total Environ. 2013, 452–453, 309–313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Langrish, J.P.; Li, X.; Wang, S.; Lee, M.M.; Barnes, G.D.; Miller, M.R.; Cassee, F.R.; Boon, N.A.; Donaldson, K.; Li, J.; et al. Reducing personal exposure to particulate air pollution improves cardiovascular health in patients with coronary heart disease. Environ. Health Perspect. 2012, 120, 367–372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Huang, W.; Morawska, L. Face Masks Could Raise Pollution Risks; Nature Publishing Group: Berlin, Germany, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Xu, Y.; Elango, V.; Guensler, R.; Khoeini, S. Idle monitoring, real-time intervention, and emission reductions from Cobb County, Georgia, School Buses. Transp. Res. Rec. 2013, 2340, 59–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ryan, P.H.; Reponen, T.; Simmons, M.; Yermakov, M.; Sharkey, K.; Garland-Porter, D.; Eghbalnia, C.; Grinshpun, S.A. The impact of an anti-idling campaign on outdoor air quality at four urban schools. Environ. Sci. Process. Impacts 2013, 15, 2030–2037. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, J.Y.; Ryan, P.H.R.; Yermakov, M.; Schaffer, C.; Reponen, T.; Grinshpun, S.A. The effect of an anti-idling campaign on indoor aerosol at urban schools. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2014, 14, 585–595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Anderson, Y.E.; Glencross, C.C.; Rudisill, T. School Bus. Idling Reduction: Project Report & Implementation Guide for Oklahoma School Districts; Assosciation of Central Oklaholma Governments: Oklaholma City, OK, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Eghbalnia, C.; Sharkey, K.; Garland-Porter, D.; Alam, M.; Crumpton, M.; Jones, C.; Ryan, P.H. A community-based participatory research partnership to reduce vehicle idling near public schools. J. Environ. Health 2013, 75, 14–19. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- 202. Fiddes, S.L.; Schofield, R.; Silver, J.D.; Rayner, P.; Murphy, C.; Brear, M.; Manzie, C.; Walter, C.; Irving, L.; Johnston, F.H.; et al. Submission on ‘Clean Air for All Victorians’ Victoria’s Air Quality Statement; Melbourne Energy Institute: Melbourne, Australia, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2014 National Emissions Inventory Data; Air Emissions Inventory; United States Environmental Protection Agency: Wahington, DC, USA, 2014. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/2014-national-emissions-inventory-nei-data (accessed on 15 October 2018).
- Ricardo Environment and Energy. UK NAEI—National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory. 2014. Available online: http://naei.beis.gov.uk/ (accessed on 15 October 2018).
- Hanigan, I.C.; Williamson, G.J.; Knibbs, L.D.; Horsley, J.; Rolfe, M.I.; Cope, M.; Barnett, A.G.; Cowie, C.T.; Heyworth, J.S.; Serre, M.L.; et al. Blending multiple nitrogen dioxide data sources for neighborhood estimates of long-term exposure for health research. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 12473–12480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- World Health Organization. Household Air Pollution and Health; Fact Sheet; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2018; Available online: http://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health (accessed on 15 October 2018).
- Emmerson, K.M.; Silver, J.D.; Newbigin, E.; Lampugnani, E.R.; Suphioglu, C.; Wain, A.; Ebert, E. Development and evaluation of pollen source methodologies for the Victorian Grass Pollen Emissions Module VGPEM1.0. Geosci. Model Dev. 2019, 12, 2195–2214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Criteria Pollutant | Australian NEPM Pollutant Standard * | World Health Organization Recommendation (ppb) or International if No WHO Recommendation |
---|---|---|
SO2 1 h | 200 ppb (100 ppb proposed) | European Union 124 ppb; USA 75 ppb (99th percentile of daily worst hour) |
SO2 24 h | 80 ppb (20 ppb proposed) | 7.6 ppb |
SO2 annual | 20 ppb (proposed to be removed) | No standard |
NO2 1 h | 120 ppb (90 ppb proposed) | 97 ppb |
NO2 annual | 30 ppb (19 ppb proposed) | 19 ppb |
O3 1 h | 100 ppb (proposed to be removed) | New Zealand: 70 ppb; Japan: 60 ppb |
O3 4 h | 80 ppb (proposed to be removed) | No standard |
O3 8 h | No standard (65 ppb proposed) | 47 ppb |
CO | 9 ppm | 10 ppm |
PM2.5 24-h | 25 µg/m3 (2025 goal of 20 µg/m3) | 25 µg/m3 |
PM2.5 annual | 8 µg/m3 (2025 goal of 7 µg/m3) | 10 µg/m3 |
PM10 24-h | 50 µg/m3 | 50 µg/m3 |
PM10 annual | 25 µg/m3 | 20 µg/m3 |
Reducing Emissions | Managing Land Use | Reducing Exposure | |
---|---|---|---|
+ |
|
|
|
- |
|
|
|
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Paton-Walsh, C.; Rayner, P.; Simmons, J.; Fiddes, S.L.; Schofield, R.; Bridgman, H.; Beaupark, S.; Broome, R.; Chambers, S.D.; Chang, L.T.-C.; et al. A Clean Air Plan for Sydney: An Overview of the Special Issue on Air Quality in New South Wales. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 774. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10120774
Paton-Walsh C, Rayner P, Simmons J, Fiddes SL, Schofield R, Bridgman H, Beaupark S, Broome R, Chambers SD, Chang LT-C, et al. A Clean Air Plan for Sydney: An Overview of the Special Issue on Air Quality in New South Wales. Atmosphere. 2019; 10(12):774. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10120774
Chicago/Turabian StylePaton-Walsh, Clare, Peter Rayner, Jack Simmons, Sonya L. Fiddes, Robyn Schofield, Howard Bridgman, Stephanie Beaupark, Richard Broome, Scott D. Chambers, Lisa Tzu-Chi Chang, and et al. 2019. "A Clean Air Plan for Sydney: An Overview of the Special Issue on Air Quality in New South Wales" Atmosphere 10, no. 12: 774. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10120774