Sustainable Production of Robusta Coffee under a Changing Climate: A 10-Year Monitoring of Fertilizer Management in Coffee Farms in Vietnam and Indonesia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study Areas
2.1.1. Vietnam
2.1.2. Indonesia
2.2. Study Design: Annual Monitoring of Fertilization Management–Farmers Survey
2.3. Data Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Background Information from the Survey
3.1.1. Vietnam
3.1.2. Indonesia
3.2. Year-To-Year Variability of Fertilizer Use in Robusta Coffee Farms in Vietnam and Indonesia
3.2.1. N, P2O5 and K2O Uses in Vietnam During 2008–2017
3.2.2. N, P2O5 and K2O Uses in Indonesia During 2008–2017
3.3. Comparisons of Fertilizer Use in Robusta Coffee Farms Between Provinces
3.3.1. Vietnam
3.3.2. Indonesia
3.4. Organic Fertilizers Use in Robusta Coffee Farms in Vietnam and Indonesia
3.5. Potential for Reducing Nutrient Rates in Robusta Coffee Farms
4. Discussion
4.1. Were Coffee Farmers Following the Fertilizer Recommendations in Both Countries?
4.2. Challenges for a Sustainable Management of Fertilizers in Vietnam and Indonesia
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- De Beenhouwer, M.; Muleta, D.; Peeters, B.; Van Geel, M.; Lievens, B.; Honnay, O. DNA pyrosequencing evidence for large diversity differences between natural and managed coffee mycorrhizal fungal communities. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2015, 35, 241–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Capa, D.; Pérez-Esteban, J.; Masaguer, A. Unsustainability of recommended fertilization rates for coffee monoculture due to high N2O emissions. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2015, 35, 1551–1559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- International Coffee Organization. Historical Data on the Global Coffee Trade. 2016. Available online: http://www.ico.org/new_historical.asp (accessed on 10 June 2019).
- Krishnan, S. Sustainable Coffee Production; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- DaMatta, F.M.; Ronchi, C.P.; Maestri, M.; Barros, R.S. Ecophysiology of coffee growth and production. Braz. J. Plant Physiol. 2007, 19, 485–510. [Google Scholar][Green Version]
- Kamala Bai, S. Response of Young Coffees (Coffea Spp.) to Different Levels, Sources of Fertilizers and Microbial Inoculants on Growth and Development; University of Agricultural Sciences GKVK: Bangalore, India, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Central Coffee Research Institute. Coffee Guide; Central Coffee Research Institute, Coffee Research Station: Chikmagalur District, Chikmagalur, India, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Snoeck, J.; Lambot, C. Fertilization. In Coffee: Growing, Processing, Sustainable Production: A Guidebook for Growers, Processors, Traders, and Researchers; Wintgens, J.N., Ed.; WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA: Weinheim, Germany, 2008; pp. 246–269. [Google Scholar]
- Descroix, F.; Snoeck, J. Environmental factors suitable for coffee cultivation. In Coffee: Growing, Processing, Sustainable Production: A Guidebook for Growers, Processors, Traders, and Researchers; Wintgens, J.N., Ed.; WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA: Weinheim, Germany, 2008; pp. 164–177. [Google Scholar]
- Willson, C. Mineral nutrition and fertiliser needs. In Coffee: Botany, Biochemistry and Production of Beans and Beverage; Clifford, M.N., Willson, K.C., Eds.; Springer US: Boston, MA, USA, 1985; pp. 135–156. [Google Scholar]
- Jessy, M.D. Potassium management in plantation crops with special reference to tea, coffee and rubber. Karnataka J. Agric. Sci. 2011, 24, 67–74. [Google Scholar]
- Descroix, F.; Wintgens, J.N. Establishing a coffee plantation. In Coffee: Growing, Processing, Sustainable Production: A Guidebook for Growers, Processors, Traders, and Researchers; Wintgens, J.N., Ed.; WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA: Weinheim, Germany, 2008; pp. 178–245. [Google Scholar]
- Tiemann, T.; Aye, T.M.; Dung, N.D.; Tien, T.M.; Fisher, M.; de Paulo, E.N.; Oberthür, T. Crop nutrition for Vietnamese Robusta coffee. Better Crop. Plant Food 2018, 102, 20–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kouadio, L.; Newlands, N. Building capacity for assessing spatial-based sustainability metrics in agriculture. Decis. Anal. 2015, 2, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Pretty, J. Agricultural sustainability: Concepts, principles and evidence. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2008, 363, 447–465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- GSOV. Statistical Yearbook of Vietnam 2017; Statistical Documentation and Service Centre, General Statistics Office of Vietnam (GSOV): Hanoi, Vietnam, 2017. Available online: https://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=515&idmid=5&ItemID=18941 (accessed on 10 June 2019).
- USDA. Indonesia: Coffee Annual. Indonesia Coffee Annual Report 2017. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Foreign Agricultural Service, Gobal Agricultural Information Network Report Number: ID1710, Date: 15 May 2017. Available online: https://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Coffee%20Annual_Jakarta_Indonesia_5-15-2017.pdf (accessed on 11 March 2019).
- USDA. Indonesia: Coffee Annual. Indonesia Coffee Annual Report 2016. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Foreign Agricultural Service, Gobal Agricultural Information Network Report Number: ID1616, Date: 12 May 2016. Available online: https://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Coffee%20Annual_Jakarta_Indonesia_5-12-2016.pdf (accessed on 24 July 2019).
- D’haeze, D.; Deckers, J.; Raes, D.; Phong, T.A.; Loi, H.V. Environmental and socio-economic impacts of institutional reforms on the agricultural sector of Vietnam: Land suitability assessment for Robusta coffee in the Dak Gan region. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2005, 105, 59–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAOSTAT, Crops National Production; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Amarasinghe, U.A.; Hoanh, C.T.; D’haeze, D.; Hung, T.Q. Toward sustainable coffee production in Vietnam: More coffee with less water. Agric. Syst. 2015, 136, 96–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dung, P.T.; H’dok, Y.K.N.; Tul, E. Microbial organic fertilizer application for safe coffee production at Daklak, Vietnam. J. Int. Soc. Southeast Asian Agric. Sci. 2009, 15, 22–31. [Google Scholar]
- Indonesia Investments. Coffee. 2017. Available online: https://www.indonesia-investments.com/business/commodities/coffee/item186? (accessed on 10 June 2019).
- The Conference Board of Canada. An Analysis of the Global Value Chain for Indonesian Coffee Exports. The Canada-Indonesia Trade and Private Sector Assistance Project (TPSA). Report January 2018. 37 pages. Available online: http://www.tpsaproject.com/wp-content/uploads/2018-01-30-Report-1211.03c.pdf (accessed on 12 June 2019).
- D’haeze, D.; Baker, P.; Van Tan, P. Vietnam’s central highlands’ upland agriculture under pressure because of the looming effects of climate change—Focus on Robusta coffee. In Proceedings of the Conference: Buon Ma Thout coffee festival, Buon Ma Thout, Vietnam, 9–16 March 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Tien, T.M. Effects of annual potassium dosage on the yield and quality of Coffea robusta in Vietnam. Res. Find. E-ifc 2015, 41, 13–20. [Google Scholar]
- FAO. Fertilizer Use by Crop in Indonesia. Land and Plant Nutrition Management Service–Land and Water Development Division; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2005; Available online: http://www.fao.org/tempref/agl/agll/docs/fertuseindonesia.pdf (accessed on 20 July 2019).
- MARD. Manual for Good Agricultural Practices for Robusta Coffee Gproduction; Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), National Agricultural Extension Center of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam: Hanoi, Vietnam, 2003.
- WASI. Western Highlands Agriculture and Forestry Science Institute (WASI), Scientific and Technical Activities; WASI: Buon Ma Thout, Vietnam, 2015; Available online: http://wasi.org.vn/en/.
- World Bank. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam—Coffee Sector Report; Report No. 29358-VN, June 2004; The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Agriculture & Rural Development Department, World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2004; Available online: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/14405/293580VN0Coffe1ver0P08262901Public1.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed on 11 March 2019).
- Indonesian Coffee and Cocoa Research Institute (ICCRI). Training Coffee Cultivation. 2016. Available online: http://tc.iccri.net/2016/04/22/pelatihan-teknik-budidaya-dan-pengolahan-kopi/ (accessed on 11 March 2019).
- Marsh, A. Diversification by Smallholder Farmers: Viet Nam Robusta Coffee; Agricultural Management, Marketing and Finance Working Document 19; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2007; p. 9. [Google Scholar]
- R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing; R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria, 2018; Available online: https://www.R-project.org/.
- D’haeze, D. Characterization, Evaluation and Diagnosis of Small-holder Coffee Based Farming Systems under Irrigation in Dac Lac Province, Vietnam. Ph.D. Thesis, KU Leuven University, Leuven, Belgium, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Minot, N. Competitiveness of Food Processing in Vietnam: A Study of the Rice, Coffee, Seafood, and Fruits and Vegetables Subsectors Ministry of Planning and Investment Vietnam and United Nations Industrial Development Organization Vietnam. 1998. Available online: http://agro.gov.vn/images/2007/04/food.pdf (accessed on 10 June 2019).
- The Voice of Vietnam. Vietnam Ascending to World’s Largest Coffee Exporter. The Voice of Vietnam. 2014. Available online: http://english.vov.vn/Economy/Trade/Vietnam-ascending-to-worlds-largest-coffee-exporter/279633.vov (accessed on 12 June 2019).
- Thang, T.C.; Phuc, V.H. Vietnam’s Coffee Policy Review. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian Pacific Region (FFTC) Agricultural Ploicy Platform. 2016. Available online: http://ap.fftc.agnet.org/ap_db.php?id=657 (accessed on 10 June 2019).
- Dzung, N.A.; Khanh, V.T.P.; Dzung, T.T. Research on impact of chitosan oligomers on biophysical characteristics, growth, development and drought resistance of coffee. Carbohydr. Polym. 2011, 84, 751–755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kuit, M.; van Rijn, F.; Tu, V.T.M.; Van Anh, P. The Sustainable Coffee Conundrum: A Study into the Effects, Cost and Benefits of Implementation Modalities of Sustainable Coffee Production in Vietnam; 9082134608; KUIT Consultancy/Wageningen UR: Wageningen, The Netherland, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Scherr, S.; Mankad, K.; Jaffee, S.; Negra, C. Steps toward Green: Policy Responses to the Environmental Footprint of Commodity Agriculture in East and Southeast Asia; EcoAgriculture Partners and World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Minh, H.T.; Trang, D.T.N.; Chen, J.C. Input factors to sustainable development of coffee production in the Dak Lak province. Open Access Libr. J. 2016, 3, e3187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kouadio, L.; Deo, R.C.; Byrareddy, V.; Adamowski, J.F.; Mushtaq, S.; Nguyen, V.P. Artificial intelligence approach for the prediction of Robusta coffee yield using soil fertility properties. Comput. Electron. Agric. 2018, 155, 324–338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kebede, T.; Mikru, Z. The Nutrient Status of Long Term Fertilized Soils of Coffee Plantation in Southwestern Ethiopia; Jimma Agricultural Research Center: Jimma, Ethiopia, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Nyalemegbe, K.K.; Oteng, J.W.; Asuming-Brempong, S. Integrated organic-inorganic fertilizer management for rice production on the Vertisols of the Accra Plains of Ghana. West Afr. J. Appl. Ecol. 2010, 16, 23–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nguyen, G.N.T.; Sarker, T. Sustainable coffee supply chain management: A case study in Buon Me Thuot City, Daklak, Vietnam. Int. J. Corp. Soc. Responsib. 2018, 3, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bruno, I.P.; Unkovich, M.J.; Bortolotto, R.P.; Bacchi, O.O.S.; Dourado-Neto, D.; Reichardt, K. Fertilizer nitrogen in fertigated coffee crop: Absorption changes in plant compartments over time. Field Crop. Res. 2011, 124, 369–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hergoualc’h, K.; Skiba, U.; Harmand, J.-M.; Hénault, C. Fluxes of greenhouse gases from Andosols under coffee in monoculture or shaded by Inga densiflora in Costa Rica. Biogeochemistry 2008, 89, 329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IDH. Vietnam—A Business Case for Sustainable Coffee Production. An industry Study by TechnoServe for the Sustainable Coffee Program. The Sustainable Trade Initiative (IDH). 2013. Available online: http://exchange.growasia.org/vietnam-business-case-sustainable-coffee-production (accessed on 12 June 2019).
Vietnam | Total | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Province | Dak Lak | Dak Nong | Gia Lai | Lam Dong | 4 |
Number of districts | 6 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 18 |
Number of farmers | 180 | 120 | 93 | 165 | 558 |
Total observation | 1800 | 1200 | 930 | 1650 | 5580 |
Indonesia | |||||
Province | Lampung | South Sumatra | Bengkulu | 3 | |
Number of districts | 3 | 3 | 2 | 8 | |
Number of farmers | 90 | 90 | 60 | 240 | |
Total observation | 900 | 900 | 600 | 2400 |
Vietnam | Indonesia | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
min | max | average | min | max | average | |
Farm size (ha) | 0.1 | 11.2 | 1.72 | 0.3 | 8 | 1.54 |
Small (≤1 ha) | Large (>1 ha) | Small (≤1 ha) | Large (>1 ha) | |||
Farm size group (%) | 40 | 60 | 55 | 45 | ||
min | max | average | min | max | average | |
Age of tree (years) | 3 | 29 | 13.2 | 3 | 48 | 13 |
≤10 years | 10–20 years | >20 years | ≤10 years | 10– 20 years | >20 years | |
Trees (%) | 28 | 61 | 11 | 44 | 37 | 20 |
≤500 m | 501–900 m | >900 m | ≤500 m | 501–900 m | >900 m | |
Farm altitude (%) | 18 | 67 | 15 | 28 | 45 | 27 |
Chemical | Organic | Chemical | Organic | |||
Fertiliser users (%) | NPK (79%) Super phosphate (98%) Potassium chloride (98%) Urea (100%) | Compost (81%) Lime (19%) | NPK (68%) Urea (80%) Triple super phosphate (5%) | Compost (96%) |
Vietnam | |||
---|---|---|---|
N (%) | P2O5 (%) | K2O (%) | |
NPK | 16 | 8 | 16 |
Urea | 46 | ||
Super phosphate | 16 | ||
Potassium chloride | 60 | ||
N (kg ha−1) | P2O5 (kg ha−1) | K2O (kg ha−1) | |
Recommendation #1 (2.5–3.0 ton ha−1) | 192 | 88 | 261 |
Recommendation #2 (3.0–4.0 ton ha−1) | 248 | 116 | 317 |
Indonesia | |||
N (%) | P2O5 (%) | K2O (%) | |
NPK | 15 | 15 | 15 |
Urea | 46 | ||
Triple super phosphate | 36 | ||
Potassium chloride | 60 | ||
N (kg ha−1) | P2O5 (kg ha−1) | K2O (kg ha−1) | |
Recommendation | 135 | 35 | 145 |
2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dak Lak | SF | 379a | 379a | 402a | 402a | 379a | 402a | 351b | 402a | 379a | 402a |
LF | 388ab | 388ab | 411a | 411a | 388ab | 411a | 365b | 411a | 388ab | 411a | |
Dak Nong | SF | 435ab | 435ab | 477a | 477a | 435ab | 477a | 408b | 477a | 435ab | 477a |
LF | 435ab | 435ab | 480a | 480a | 435ab | 480a | 407b | 480a | 435ab | 480a | |
Gia Lai | SF | 369ab | 369ab | 403a | 403a | 369ab | 403a | 347b | 403a | 369ab | 403a |
LF | 381ab | 381ab | 398a | 398a | 381ab | 398a | 359b | 398a | 381ab | 398a | |
Lam Dong | SF | 464ab | 464ab | 504a | 504a | 464ab | 504a | 422b | 504a | 464ab | 504a |
LF | 475b | 475b | 511a | 511a | 475b | 511a | 438c | 511a | 475b | 511a |
Year | Small-scale | Large-scale | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dak Lak | Dak Nong | Gia Lai | Lam Dong | Dak Lak | Dak Nong | Gia Lai | Lam Dong | |
N (kg ha−1) | ||||||||
2008 | 379b | 435a | 369b | 464a | 388c | 435b | 381c | 475a |
2009 | 379b | 435a | 369b | 464a | 388c | 435b | 381c | 475a |
2010 | 402b | 477a | 403b | 504a | 411c | 480b | 398c | 511a |
2011 | 402b | 477a | 403b | 504a | 411c | 480b | 398c | 511a |
2012 | 379b | 435a | 369b | 464a | 388c | 435b | 381c | 475a |
2013 | 402b | 477a | 403b | 504a | 411c | 480b | 398c | 511a |
2014 | 351b | 408a | 347b | 422a | 365c | 407b | 359c | 438a |
2015 | 402b | 477a | 403b | 504a | 411c | 480b | 398c | 511a |
2016 | 379b | 435a | 369b | 464a | 388c | 435b | 381c | 475a |
2017 | 402b | 477a | 403b | 504a | 411c | 480b | 398c | 511a |
P2O5 (kg ha−1) | ||||||||
2008 | 181b | 216a | 202ab | 191ab | 193b | 215a | 184b | 183b |
2009 | 181b | 216a | 202ab | 191ab | 193b | 215a | 184b | 183b |
2010 | 195b | 224a | 216ab | 201ab | 205ab | 225a | 199b | 191b |
2011 | 195b | 224a | 216ab | 201ab | 205ab | 225a | 199b | 191b |
2012 | 181b | 216a | 202ab | 191ab | 193b | 215a | 184b | 183b |
2013 | 195b | 224a | 216ab | 201ab | 205ab | 225a | 199b | 191b |
2014 | 177b | 215a | 202a | 190ab | 187b | 214a | 184b | 182b |
2015 | 195b | 224a | 216ab | 201ab | 205ab | 225a | 199b | 191b |
2016 | 181b | 216a | 202ab | 191ab | 193b | 215a | 184b | 183b |
2017 | 195b | 224a | 216ab | 201ab | 205ab | 225a | 199b | 191b |
K2O (kg ha−1) | ||||||||
2008 | 402b | 549a | 509a | 496a | 423c | 557a | 471bc | 473b |
2009 | 402b | 549a | 509a | 496a | 423c | 557a | 471bc | 473b |
2010 | 418b | 558a | 525a | 515a | 440c | 574a | 486bc | 486b |
2011 | 418b | 558a | 525a | 515a | 440c | 574a | 486bc | 486b |
2012 | 402b | 549a | 509a | 496a | 423c | 557a | 471bc | 473b |
2013 | 418b | 558a | 525a | 515a | 440c | 574a | 486bc | 486b |
2014 | 400b | 547a | 509a | 495a | 419c | 556a | 471b | 472b |
2015 | 418b | 558a | 525a | 515a | 440c | 574a | 486bc | 486b |
2016 | 402b | 549a | 509a | 496a | 423c | 557a | 471bc | 473b |
2017 | 418b | 558a | 525a | 515a | 440c | 574a | 486bc | 486b |
Year | Small-scale | Large-scale | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bengkulu | Lampung | South Sumatra | Bengkulu | Lampung | South Sumatra | |
N (kg ha−1) | ||||||
2008 | 44b | 93a | 75ab | 44b | 97a | 53b |
2009 | 44b | 93a | 75ab | 44b | 97a | 53b |
2010 | 44b | 93a | 75ab | 44b | 97a | 53b |
2011 | 38b | 66a | 58ab | 34b | 68a | 46b |
2012 | 44b | 93a | 75ab | 44b | 97a | 53b |
2013 | 44b | 93a | 75ab | 44b | 97a | 53b |
2014 | 36b | 68a | 62a | 33b | 71a | 46b |
2015 | 44b | 93a | 75ab | 44b | 97a | 53b |
2016 | 44b | 93a | 75ab | 44b | 97a | 53b |
2017 | 44b | 93a | 75ab | 44b | 97a | 53b |
P2O5 (kg ha−1) | ||||||
2008 | 14a | 16a | 16a | 11ab | 15a | 11b |
2009 | 14a | 16a | 16a | 11ab | 15a | 11b |
2010 | 14a | 16a | 17a | 14ab | 20a | 11b |
2011 | 8a | 10a | 10a | 7a | 10a | 8a |
2012 | 14a | 16a | 17a | 14ab | 20a | 11b |
2013 | 14a | 16a | 17a | 14ab | 20a | 11b |
2014 | 9a | 12a | 12a | 12ab | 16a | 8b |
2015 | 14a | 16a | 17a | 14ab | 20a | 11b |
2016 | 14a | 16a | 17a | 14ab | 20a | 11b |
2017 | 14a | 16a | 17a | 14ab | 20a | 11b |
K2O (kg ha−1) | ||||||
2008 | 14a | 16a | 16a | 11ab | 15a | 11b |
2009 | 14a | 16a | 16a | 11ab | 15a | 11b |
2010 | 14a | 16a | 16a | 11ab | 15a | 11b |
2011 | 8a | 10a | 10a | 7a | 10a | 8a |
2012 | 14a | 16a | 16a | 11ab | 15a | 11b |
2013 | 14a | 16a | 16a | 11ab | 15a | 11b |
2014 | 9a | 12a | 11a | 9a | 10a | 8a |
2015 | 14a | 16a | 16a | 11ab | 15a | 11b |
2016 | 14a | 16a | 16a | 11ab | 15a | 11b |
2017 | 14a | 16a | 16a | 11ab | 15a | 11b |
N (kg ha−1) | P2O5 (kg ha−1) | K2O (kg ha−1) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Levels | ≤192 | 192–384 | >384 | ≤88 | 88–176 | >176 | ≤261 | 261–522 | >522 |
A. Dak Lak | |||||||||
A1. Pct. sample | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 34 | 30 | 1.9 | 34 | 28 | 2 | 59 | 3 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 15 | 15 | 0.1 | 17 | 13 | 1 | 27 | 2 |
>3.0 | - | 3 | 3 | - | 3 | 3 | - | 6 | 0 |
A2. Avg. yield | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 2.11 | 2.14 | 2.01 | 2.12 | 2.14 | 2.17 | 2.11 | 2.29 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 2.81 | 2.84 | 2.56 | 2.84 | 2.82 | 2.86 | 2.82 | 2.87 |
>3.0 | - | 3.6 | 3.45 | - | 3.4 | 3.62 | - | 3.47 | 4.21 |
B. Dak Nong | |||||||||
B1. Pct. sample | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 9 | 57 | 1 | 8 | 57 | - | 26 | 40 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 2 | 23 | 1 | 3 | 22 | - | 8 | 17 |
>3.0 | - | 2 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 6 | - | 4 | 5 |
B2. Avg. yield | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 2.13 | 2.13 | 2.03 | 2.16 | 2.13 | - | 2.14 | 2.13 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 2.85 | 2.86 | 2.92 | 2.82 | 2.87 | - | 2.84 | 2.87 |
>3.0 | - | 3.19 | 3.41 | 3.13 | 3.34 | 3.39 | - | 3.26 | 3.45 |
C. Gia Lai | |||||||||
C1. Pct. sample | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 25 | 20 | - | 12 | 33 | - | 27 | 18 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 22 | 15 | - | 10 | 27 | - | 19 | 18 |
>3.0 | - | 9 | 9 | - | 4 | 14 | - | 7 | 11 |
C2. Avg. yield | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 2.28 | 2.22 | - | 2.31 | 2.23 | - | 2.26 | 2.24 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 2.89 | 2.86 | - | 2.86 | 2.89 | - | 2.89 | 2.87 |
>3.0 | - | 3.43 | 3.35 | - | 3.35 | 3.41 | - | 3.35 | 3.42 |
D. Lam Dong | |||||||||
D1. Pct. sample | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 3 | 34 | - | 10 | 28 | - | 26 | 11 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 4 | 29 | - | 8 | 25 | - | 23 | 10 |
>3.0 | - | 2 | 28 | - | 5 | 24 | - | 16 | 14 |
D2. Avg. yield | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 2.14 | 2.19 | - | 2.21 | 2.18 | - | 2.19 | 2.17 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 2.96 | 2.95 | - | 2.96 | 2.95 | - | 2.95 | 2.95 |
>3.0 | - | 3.36 | 3.46 | - | 3.44 | 3.46 | - | 3.43 | 3.48 |
N (kg ha−1) | P2O5 (kg ha−1) | K2O (kg ha−1) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Levels | ≤192 | 192–384 | >384 | ≤88 | 88–176 | >176 | ≤261 | 261–522 | >522 |
A. Dak Lak | |||||||||
A1. Pct. sample | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 24 | 36 | 0.6 | 30 | 30 | 7 | 47 | 6 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 9 | 24 | 0.3 | 17 | 16 | 3 | 26 | 5 |
>3.0 | - | 2 | 5 | 0.1 | 3 | 3 | - | 5 | 1 |
A2. Avg. yield | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 2.18 | 2.19 | 2.14 | 2.18 | 2.19 | 2.13 | 2.19 | 2.21 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 2.74 | 2.77 | 2.71 | 2.76 | 2.76 | 2.75 | 2.75 | 2.82 |
>3.0 | - | 3.27 | 3.23 | 3.06 | 3.27 | 3.22 | - | 3.24 | 3.23 |
B. Dak Nong | |||||||||
B1. Pct. sample | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 5.7 | 44 | - | 8 | 42 | - | 17 | 33 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 4 | 36 | - | 6 | 34 | - | 16 | 24 |
>3.0 | - | 0.3 | 10 | - | 1 | 9 | - | 4 | 6 |
B2. Avg. yield | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 2.24 | 2.19 | - | 2.21 | 2.2 | - | 2.24 | 2.18 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 2.83 | 2.8 | - | 2.81 | 2.8 | - | 2.8 | 2.8 |
>3.0 | - | 3.29 | 3.31 | - | 3.27 | 3.31 | - | 3.29 | 3.32 |
C. Gia Lai | |||||||||
C1. Pct. sample | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 23 | 29 | - | 27 | 25 | - | 35 | 17 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 14 | 20 | - | 18 | 15 | - | 23 | 10 |
>3.0 | - | 7 | 7 | - | 6 | 9 | - | 9 | 6 |
C2. Avg. yield | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 2.16 | 2.12 | - | 2.12 | 2.16 | - | 2.12 | 2.18 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 2.79 | 2.82 | - | 2.8 | 2.82 | - | 2.81 | 2.79 |
>3.0 | - | 3.26 | 3.28 | - | 3.3 | 3.25 | - | 3.29 | 3.24 |
D. Lam Dong | |||||||||
D1. Pct. sample | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 2 | 24 | 0.2 | 8 | 18 | - | 19 | 7 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 3 | 35 | 0.6 | 12 | 25 | - | 28 | 10 |
>3.0 | - | 3 | 33 | 0.2 | 11 | 25 | - | 25 | 11 |
D2. Avg. yield | |||||||||
<2.5 | - | 2.24 | 2.24 | 2.39 | 2.26 | 2.23 | - | 2.24 | 2.24 |
2.5–3.0 | - | 2.88 | 2.83 | 2.79 | 2.82 | 2.83 | - | 2.83 | 2.83 |
>3.0 | - | 3.34 | 3.32 | 3.28 | 3.31 | 3.33 | - | 3.32 | 3.33 |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Byrareddy, V.; Kouadio, L.; Mushtaq, S.; Stone, R. Sustainable Production of Robusta Coffee under a Changing Climate: A 10-Year Monitoring of Fertilizer Management in Coffee Farms in Vietnam and Indonesia. Agronomy 2019, 9, 499. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9090499
Byrareddy V, Kouadio L, Mushtaq S, Stone R. Sustainable Production of Robusta Coffee under a Changing Climate: A 10-Year Monitoring of Fertilizer Management in Coffee Farms in Vietnam and Indonesia. Agronomy. 2019; 9(9):499. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9090499
Chicago/Turabian StyleByrareddy, Vivekananda, Louis Kouadio, Shahbaz Mushtaq, and Roger Stone. 2019. "Sustainable Production of Robusta Coffee under a Changing Climate: A 10-Year Monitoring of Fertilizer Management in Coffee Farms in Vietnam and Indonesia" Agronomy 9, no. 9: 499. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9090499