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Article

Path Analysis on the Meteorological Factors Impacting Yield of Tartary Buckwheat at Different Sowing Dates

by
Jin Zhang
1,
Jing Sun
2,
Hong Chen
2,
Zhiming Yan
1,
Sichen Liu
1,
Longlong Liu
1 and
Xiaoning Cao
1,*
1
Center for Agricultural Genetic Resources Research, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taiyuan 030031, China
2
Shanxi Seed Industry Development Center, Taiyuan 030006, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 950; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040950
Submission received: 18 March 2025 / Revised: 2 April 2025 / Accepted: 12 April 2025 / Published: 14 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Tartary buckwheat is an important characteristic multigrain crop, mainly planted in Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan and Tibet, and other alpine and remote ethnic mountainous areas. In order to clarify the effect of sowing date on the yield and quality of Tartary buckwheat and its relationship with meteorological factors The variety Jinqiao No. 2 was used for a two-year trial at Dingxiang Test Base in Shanxi Province on four sowing dates (15 June, 26 June, 6 July and 17 July 2022 and 19 June, 30 June, 10 July and 21 July 2023) starting from the bud stage. Responses to sowing date were investigated by examining the growth period structure, yield, yield component, quality, and their relationship to climatic factors. The results showed that meteorological factors during the grain grain-filling stage were different when the sowing date was different. Compared with other sowing times, the treatment with the sowing of early and mid-July had less than 13.5~27.9 h of sunshine, less than 28.8~48.5 mm of rainfall, more than 10.5~19 days of ≤15 °C days, but the most serious low-temperature stress (≤15 °C days up to 27 days). The yield of sowing in July was 69.8~77.0% and 69.9~79.1% lower than that of sowing in June in 2022 and 2023 respectively, and the later sowing had a lower yield. Delayed sowing is beneficial to the accumulation of flavonoids and protein in Tartary buckwheat grains, and the average value in 2022 and 2023 is 11.55% and 14.64% higher than that in the first sowing, but the content of fat and starch is significantly reduced. The result of path analysis showed that the low temperature (≤15 °C days up to 27 days) and less solar radiation duration were the key points for attaining high yield and quality, due to the mean daily temperature and ≤15 °C days from flowering to maturity had negative effect on 1000-seed weight, seed setting rate, starch and crude lipid content of Tartary buckwheat, and the direct effect of sunshine duration on the content of protein and flavonoid in Tartary buckwheat was the greatest. The yield of Tartary buckwheat sown in June was higher than that of other treatments, because of avoiding low-temperature stress and long rainy and sunless weather during the grain filling stage, which enabled the blossoming and grain filling normally and finally attained higher yield.

1. Introduction

Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn.) is an important characteristic coarse cereal crop. It is rich in active functional components such as bioflavonoids (rutin, quercetin, etc.) [1], and is known as the “King of Five Grains”. In recent years, tartary buckwheat has been widely developed into products such as tartary buckwheat tea, beverages, and pastries, which are favored by people, and the market demand is increasing day by day [2]. However, tartary buckwheat exhibits high frost tolerance and is primarily cultivated in high-altitude mountainous regions [3]. Most of these areas have harsh natural conditions, a relatively low level of agricultural production, and unstable yield and quality have long existed, which severely restricts the healthy and rapid development of the tartary buckwheat industry [4]. Therefore, developing tartary buckwheat production has important theoretical and practical significance for promoting the increase in production and income of farmers in tartary buckwheat planting areas, promoting the development of regional advantageous and characteristic industries, and rural revitalization.
In recent years, research on the production, product development, and nutritional functions of tartary buckwheat has been increasing [5]. There have also been many reports on related high-yield and high-quality cultivation techniques of tartary buckwheat [6,7], which has greatly promoted the development of tartary buckwheat planting techniques. Path analysis can identify the direct and indirect effects of environmental factors, cultivation measures, and physiological characteristics on crop growth and development or yield [8,9,10]. Previous studies have found that the division of crop ecological regions and sowing techniques are closely related to the meteorological factors in the planting area [11], and meteorological factors are also the key factors determining the yield and quality of crops [12]. Currently, there are more reports on the relationship between meteorological factors and yield and quality in major crops such as maize [13], rice [14], and wheat [15]. It has been found that meteorological factors influence crop yield through modulating nutrient uptake efficiency and can reliably estimate the expected values of quality traits and evaluate the specific impact on quality [16,17]. For example, Fang et al. [18] found that ET0, temperature, DTR, and solar radiation duration were the main weather factors that influence grain yield. Precipitation is significantly negatively correlated with thousand-grain weight and ear length, and sunshine has a positive impact on thousand-grain weight [19]. Yeganeh et al. [20] found that this leads to increased amylose levels, which leads to larger peaks and final viscosity. Li et al. [21] found that high temperatures increased the respiration rate at flowering and filling periods, which hindered wheat pollination and seed ripening. Ma et al. [22] found that the yield of corn decreased by 44.67% after excessive precipitation. The yield of rice in the emergence stage in Northeast China is greatly affected by temperature, while wheat is greatly affected by temperature during the filling stage [23]. Virili et al. [24] showed that delayed sowing was beneficial to the growth and yield of buckwheat. Ren et al. [25] showed that the starch content and protein content of crops decreased with the delay of the sowing date. Singh et al. [26] found that delayed sowing increases the total protein content in wheat, which may be due to changes in temperature conditions and rainfall during the grain-filling process [27,28], causing the grain-filling period to coincide with high-temperature periods, thereby affecting grain protein percentage and yield [27]. Excessive rainfall alters soil water content [29], inhibiting aerobic respiration processes in root cells such as the tricarboxylic acid cycle, adversely affecting energy (ATP) synthesis [30], sugar export, and nitrogen assimilation [31], ultimately impacting protein synthesis and accumulation.
Wang et al. [32] found that rice total starch and amylopectin content were higher under early sowing, while amylose content was higher under late sowing. Harris et al. [33] found that increased temperatures significantly reduce both the fresh and dry weight of spring wheat grains while decreasing starch content. Excessively high temperatures during grain filling accelerate crop reproductive development [34], alter starch metabolism-related gene expression and starch biosynthetic enzyme activity [33], affect leaf photosynthesis and respiration rates [35], reduce starch synthesis capacity, and ultimately change crop quality and yield [36]. However, research in this area on buckwheat is still in a blank state. Especially, there are few reports on the changes in meteorological factors during the key growth stages of tartary buckwheat caused by the sowing date and their correlation with the yield component factors and quality traits of tartary buckwheat. At the same time, since tartary buckwheat is mainly planted in remote, cold, and arid areas, the climatic conditions required for its growth are also significantly different from those of other major food crops [37]. Therefore, this paper uses a two-year consecutive field experiment to clarify the impact of the changes in meteorological factors during the flowering and fruiting (filling) stage on the yield, yield components, and quality of tartary buckwheat. It is of great significance for the rational regional layout and high-yield cultivation of tartary buckwheat and can also provide a reference for the production of other crops in similar ecological regions.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Time and Location of the Experiment

The trials were conducted in 2022 and 2023 at the Dingxiang Experimental Base of the Agricultural Genetic Resources Research Center of Shanxi Agricultural University in Shanxi Province, China (Latitude: 38.48° N, Longitude: 112.95° E). The soil type of the test site is Cambisols in WRB classification, and the texture is heavy loam. The basic nutrient conditions of the 0–20 cm soil layer were as follows: organic matter 12.6 g·kg⁻1, total nitrogen 0.78 g·kg⁻1, total phosphorus 0.51 g·kg⁻1, total potassium 16.3 g·kg⁻1, alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen 52.4 mg·kg⁻1, available potassium 34.3 mg·kg⁻1, and available phosphorus 23.4 mg·kg⁻1.

2.2. Experimental Materials

The experimental material was Jinqiao No. 2, this variety is characterized by a short growth period, strong stress resistance, high yield, and excellent quality. A main cultivated variety widely promoted in production was provided by the Agricultural Gene Resources Research Center of Shanxi Agricultural University.

2.3. Experimental Design

The experiment adopted a randomized block design with 4 sowing dates. In 2022, they were 15 June, 26 June, 6 July, and 17 July; in 2023, they were 19 June, 30 June, 10 July, and 21 July. The design included 3 replicates. It was a randomized block design with 3 replicates. The plot area of each treatment was 10 m2 (2 m × 5 m), the planting density was 900,000 plants·hm⁻2, and the dibbling method was used. The row spacing was 25 cm, the hole spacing was 20 cm, and 4 plants were planted in each hole. Before sowing, a high-efficiency compound fertilizer (NPK = 15:15:15) was applied at a rate of 300 kg·hm⁻2 at one time. Post-sowing irrigation was conducted using a drip system with 30 mm water applied every 7 days until maturity. After sowing, irrigation and soil covering were carried out, and other cultivation management measures were the same as those in the field production. The first intertillage and weeding were conducted when the first true leaf emerged. A second intertillage and weeding operation were performed before flowering, combined with hilling-up to mound soil around seedlings, to prevent soil compaction and promote root development. Timely pest and disease control measures were implemented throughout the growth period.

2.4. Investigation and Determination Items

2.4.1. Investigation of Growth Period and Growth Stages

According to the growth performance of buckwheat, record the growth period and growth stages (emergence stage, budding stage, full-bloom stage, and maturity stage) of buckwheat in each sowing date treatment and calculate its growth period.

2.4.2. Investigation of Meteorological Data

From the apical meristem to the visible bud, meteorological data, including maximum temperatures, are recorded daily, minimum temperature, mean temperature, rainfall, and solar radiation duration. Detailed data are shown in Table 1.

2.4.3. Yield

After the buckwheat matured, 5 representative plants were taken from each plot to investigate the number of grains per plant and the thousand-grain weight [38]. The yield was calculated after the actual harvest of 1 m2 in each plot.

2.4.4. Quality Determination

The starch content of tartary buckwheat grains was determined by the enzymatic hydrolysis method [39], the protein content was determined by the Kjeldahl method [40], and the lipid content was determined by the Soxhlet extraction method [41], with 3 replicates. The flavonoid content was determined by the colorimetric method [42]. The sample was crushed and passed through an 80-mesh sieve. 0.5 g was weighed into a conical flask, 4 mL of 60% ethanol was added, and Ultrasonic extraction was performed for 2 h using a KQ5200B ultrasonic cleaner (Kun Shan Ultrasonic Instruments Co., Ltd., Kunshan, China). The extract was transferred to a 10 mL centrifuge tube, 4 mL of 60% ethanol was added, and ultrasonic extraction was carried out for 1 h. The extract was subsequently transferred to another 10 mL centrifuge tube and centrifuged at 6000 r/min for 10 min using a high-speed centrifuge (Multifuge×175004210, Thermo Fisher Scientific (China) Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China). and the supernatant was diluted to 10 mL with 60% ethanol for testing. The spectrophotometric method was used. A standard curve was made with a standard substance, and the flavonoid content of the test solution was calculated, with 3 replicates.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

Data were organized using EXCEL 2010, and variance analysis and path analysis were carried out using SPSS 17.0. The data were tested for normality before ANOVA, and multiple comparisons were made using Duncan’s new complex range. The variance analysis adopted a one-way ANOVA, and the multiple comparison of means of each group was selected with (p < 0.05). The path analysis used SPSS linear regression. The indirect path coefficient of any independent variable to the dependent variable = correlation coefficient × path coefficient. The yield components and quality parameters of Jinqiao No. 2 were set as dependent variables Y1, Y2, Y3, and Y4 respectively; the average daily temperature, the number of days with ≥30 °C, the daily temperature range, rainfall, and solar radiation duration during the flowering and fruiting stage were set as independent variables X1, X2, X3, X4, and X5 respectively.

3. Results

3.1. Growth and Development Situations of Tartary Buckwheat Under Different Sowing Dates

As shown in Table 2, significant differences exist in the growth period structures of tartary buckwheat under different sowing dates. Postponing the sowing date extends the emergence time, emergence time will be extended. The meteorological factors during the flowering and fruiting stage show distinct differences under different sowing date treatment conditions. However, the meteorological factors in each growth stage in 2022 and 2023 are similar among different sowing dates (Table 1 and Table 2). Specifically, tartary buckwheat sown in mid-June and late June had abundant light, temperature, and water resources during the flowering and fruiting stage. The tartary buckwheat sown in early July and mid-July suffers from severe low temperatures during the flowering and fruiting stage (with a low mean temperature and more days with a temperature of ≤15 °C, as shown in Table 1), and the solar radiation duration and rainfall decrease. By comparing the average values of the meteorological factors during the flowering stage of tartary buckwheat across sowing dates in 2022 and 2023 (Table 1), we found that, compared with those sown in early July and mid-July, the mean temperature during the flowering and fruiting stage of tartary buckwheat sown in mid-June and late June is 4.05 °C to 7.80 °C higher respectively; the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C is 10.5 days to 19 days less respectively; the solar radiation duration is 13.5 h to 27.9 h more respectively; the rainfall is 28.8 mm to 48.5 mm higher respectively; and the daily temperature range is 0.70 °C to 3.65 °C lower respectively. Meanwhile, analyzing data from the two years (2022 and 2023), as sowing dates were postponed, the average daily temperature, sunshine hours, and rainfall during the flowering and fruiting stages of Tartary buckwheat in 2023 all decreased significantly. Concurrently, the number of days with temperature ≤15 °C increased significantly. However, there was no obvious trend in changes to the daily temperature range across different sowing dates.

3.2. Influence of Sowing Dates on Yield and Yield Components

It can be seen from Table 3 that different sowing dates had a significant impact on the yield and yield components of tartary buckwheat, and these performance trends were basically consistent across the two years. The yield of tartary buckwheat sown after July is extremely low, and the thousand-grain weight, the number of grains per plant, the weight of grains per plant, and the setting rate all decrease significantly. The reason for this yield result is the significant differences in the thousand-grain weight, the number of grains per plant, and the setting rate. Under the conditions of the first two sowing dates, there are no obvious differences in the number of grains per plant and the weight of grains per plant of tartary buckwheat, and the performance trends are the same in 2022 and 2023. In 2022, the yield of tartary buckwheat sown on 15 June was significantly higher than that sown on 26 June. However, there were no obvious differences between the first two sowing dates in 2023. Nevertheless, the yields of tartary buckwheat sown in the first two sowing dates in both years were significantly higher than those sown on the second two planting periods (10 July and 21 July), being 174.3–426.1% and 192.8–444.3% higher respectively in 2022 and 2023.

3.3. Effect of Sowing Date on Quality

It can be seen from Table 4 that the sowing date significantly affects the grain quality of tartary buckwheat. With the postponement of the sowing date, the flavonoid content and protein content of tartary buckwheat increase significantly. The highest values are observed for the sowing on 17 July. On average, they are 11.55% and 14.64% higher than those of the first sowing (15 June and 19 June) in 2022 and 2023 respectively. The starch content and lipid content show a decreasing trend with the postponement of the sowing date. The starch content is the highest on 15 June and 19 June, being 74.43% and 73.37% in 2022 and 2023 respectively, which are significantly higher than those of other sowing date treatments. In 2022, the lipid content is higher for the sowing on 15 June and 26 June, both of which are significantly higher than that of the sowing on 17 July, but there is no significant difference between the two. A similar change trend is observed in 2023.

3.4. Path Analysis of Thousand-Grain Weight, Number of Grains per Plant, and Setting Rate with Meteorological Factors

The path analysis of the thousand-grain weight of tartary buckwheat and the meteorological factors during the flowering and fruiting stage reveals that the primary meteorological factors restricting thousand-grain weight are average temperature and rainfall, followed by the number of days with temperatures ≤15 °C, sunshine hours, and the daily temperature range (Figure 1A; Table 5). Low-temperature stress (mean temperature and the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C) during the filling and fruiting stage exerts a direct negative effect on the thousand-grain weight (−0.775 and −0.556), and the correlation between the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C and the mean temperature (−0.970) is relatively high. Moreover, the average daily temperature has an indirect negative effect (−0.5234) through the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C, which indicates that the low-temperature stress during the flowering and fruiting stage of tartary buckwheat will restrict the increase in the thousand-grain weight of buckwheat. Rainfall and solar radiation duration have a certain positive effect on the thousand-grain weight (0.754 and 0.533), and the correlation between rainfall and solar radiation duration (0.942) is relatively high, which indicates that the positive effect of solar radiation duration on the thousand-grain weight occurs under the meteorological and ecological environmental conditions with more rainfall and more solar radiation duration. The daily temperature range has a direct positive effect on the thousand-grain weight (0.0584) and has a relatively high correlation with the average daily temperature (−0.858). Meanwhile, the average daily temperature has an indirect positive effect (0.0430) on the setting rate through the daily temperature range. However, the direct negative effect of the average daily temperature on the thousand-grain weight (−0.775) is greater, which indicates that the low-temperature stress will reduce the thousand-grain weight, but the low temperature in autumn is conducive to the formation of a larger daily temperature range, which has an obvious promoting effect on the formation of the thousand-grain weight.
By analyzing Figure 1B and Table 5, results show that the primary meteorological factors restricting the number of grains per plant of tartary buckwheat are sunshine hours and rainfall, followed by days with temperatures of ≤15 °C and daily temperature range. Sunshine hours and rainfall exert direct positive effects on grains per plant (0.498 and 0.287), with a strong positive correlation (0.942) between them. Moreover, rainfall has a certain indirect positive effect (0.4418) through solar radiation duration, which indicates that the increase in rainfall under the condition of sufficient solar radiation duration is conducive to the increase in the number of grains per plant of tartary buckwheat. The number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C and the daily temperature range have a direct negative effect (−0.261) and a direct positive effect (0.205) on the number of grains per plant respectively. The average daily temperature has a direct positive effect (0.144) on the number of grains per plant and has an indirect positive effect (0.1511) through the daily temperature range. This indicates that the low temperature will reduce the number of grains per plant of tartary buckwheat. While low-temperature conditions (low average daily temperature and increased days ≤15 °C) facilitate the formation of larger daily temperature ranges, this phenomenon negatively impacts grain number per plant.
The main meteorological factors restricting the setting rate of tartary buckwheat are the low temperature (the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C and the mean temperature during the flowering and fruiting stage), followed by rainfall and the daily temperature range (Figure 1C; Table 5). The number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C and the mean temperature during the flowering and fruiting stage has a direct negative effect (−0.700) and a direct positive effect (0.676) on the setting rate of tartary buckwheat respectively, and the correlation between the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C and the mean temperature (−0.970) is relatively high. Moreover, the average daily temperature exerts an indirect negative effect (−0.6588) mediated by the number of days with temperatures ≤15 °C. This indicates that low-temperature stress during the flowering and fruiting stage restricts reproductive processes in tartary buckwheat. Rainfall and solar radiation duration have a direct positive effect (0.641 and 0.094) on the setting rate of tartary buckwheat, and the correlation between rainfall and solar radiation duration (0.942) is relatively high. Meanwhile, solar radiation duration has an indirect negative effect (−0.5687) on the flowering and fruiting rate through rainfall. This indicates that the cloudy and rainy weather with little sunshine is not conducive to the flowering and fruiting of buckwheat, reducing the setting rate. The daily temperature range has a certain direct negative effect (−0.173) on the setting rate and has a relatively high correlation with the average daily temperature (−0.858). Meanwhile, the average daily temperature exerts an indirect negative effect (−0.1272) via the daily temperature range. This indicates that while low-temperature stress reduces the reproductive success of tartary buckwheat, autumn conditions with low temperatures facilitate larger daily temperature ranges, which modulate reproductive processes.

3.5. Path Analysis of Quality Indicators and Meteorological Factors

The path analysis of the protein content of tartary buckwheat and the meteorological factors during the filling and fruiting stage reveals that the main factors restricting the protein content of tartary buckwheat grains are solar radiation duration and the daily temperature range, followed by rainfall, the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C, and the mean temperature (Figure 2A; Table 6). solar radiation duration and the daily temperature range have a direct negative effect on the protein content (−1.333 and −1.060), and the correlation between solar radiation duration and the daily temperature range is relatively high (−0.837). Moreover, solar radiation duration has a certain indirect negative effect (−0.7417) through the daily temperature range, which indicates that the change in the daily temperature range under the condition of sufficient solar radiation duration will also significantly affect the protein content of tartary buckwheat grains.
It can be seen from Figure 2B that the main meteorological factors restricting the starch content of tartary buckwheat are the mean temperature and solar radiation duration, followed by rainfall, the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C, and the daily temperature range. The mean temperature and solar radiation duration have a direct positive effect on the starch content (1.107 and 0.534), and the correlation between the mean temperature and solar radiation duration is relatively high (0.988). Solar radiation duration has a certain indirect positive effect (1.0792) through the mean temperature (Table 6), which indicates that temperature and the amount of sunshine can promote starch synthesis to a certain extent, thereby increasing the starch content of tartary buckwheat grains. Rainfall has a direct negative effect on the starch content (−0.345), which indicates that rainfall will significantly affect the starch synthesis of tartary buckwheat grains. The number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C and the daily temperature range have a direct positive effect on the starch content (0.229 and 0.122), and the correlation coefficient between the two is 0.744, which indicates that temperature is also an important factor affecting the starch synthesis of tartary buckwheat grains.
It is found from Figure 2C that the main meteorological factors restricting the lipid content of tartary buckwheat are the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C and solar radiation duration, followed by rainfall, the daily temperature range, and the mean temperature. The mean temperature has a direct positive effect on the lipid content of tartary buckwheat grains (1.223), which indicates that under the experimental conditions, the higher the temperature, the more conducive it is to the accumulation of the lipid content of tartary buckwheat grains. Further analysis shows that the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C, solar radiation duration, rainfall, and the daily temperature range have a direct negative effect on the lipid content of tartary buckwheat grains (−2.183, −2.015, −1.814, and −1.446) respectively. There is a relatively high correlation among the factors, and solar radiation duration, rainfall, and the daily temperature range have a certain indirect negative effect (−2.0541, −2.0089, −1.8215, and −1.2080) through the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C (Table 6), which further indicates that the low-temperature condition is not conducive to the accumulation of the lipid content of tartary buckwheat grains.
The path analysis of the flavonoid content of tartary buckwheat grains and the meteorological factors during the filling and fruiting stage finds that the main factors restricting the flavonoid content of tartary buckwheat grains are solar radiation duration and the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C, followed by the daily temperature range, rainfall, and the mean temperature (Figure 2D, Table 6). Under the experimental conditions, solar radiation duration and the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C have a direct negative effect on the flavonoid content of tartary buckwheat grains (−2.315 and −1.296), which indicates that a long period of low temperature is not conducive to the accumulation of the flavonoid content of tartary buckwheat grains. Further analysis shows that the mean temperature, the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C, rainfall, and the daily temperature range have a certain indirect negative effect (−2.2571, −2.1304, −2.0526, and −1.6198) through solar radiation duration, which indicates that solar radiation duration will significantly affect the accumulation of the flavonoid content of tartary buckwheat grains.

4. Discussion

4.1. Performance of Yield and Growth Period of Tartary Buckwheat Under Different Sowing Dates

Previous studies have found that the sowing date has a significant impact on the yield of crops, and an appropriate sowing date is conducive to the increase in crop yield [43]. Li Jing et al. [44] found that the sowing date can affect the change in yield by influencing the structure of growth stages and the accumulation of photosynthetic products, and when sowing in spring, the yield will show a trend of first increasing and then decreasing with the postponement of the sowing date. In this experiment, it was found that late sowing can seriously reduce the yield. The main reason is that under the conditions of this experiment, with the postponement of the sowing date, meteorological factors such as temperature decreased significantly, while when sowing in spring, there was an obvious upward trend. Therefore, different sowing dates can change the growth period and the structure of the growth stages of tartary buckwheat plants. The results of the two-year experiment also confirm that the growth period and growth stages of tartary buckwheat are significantly different under different sowing dates (Table 2). Further analysis shows that when sowing in spring, generally postponing the sowing date will shorten the growth period of tartary buckwheat [44], while when sowing in autumn, appropriately postponing the sowing date will prolong the growth period (Table 2). In this experiment, the growth period of buckwheat sown in July was 3–15 days longer than that sown in June (in 2022) and 1–14 days longer than that sown in June (in 2023) (Table 2). Moreover, it was found in the experiment that it was difficult for the buckwheat sown in July to mature. When harvesting, most of the grains were not yet mature. However, when encountering frost exposure and prolonged low temperatures, the phenomenon of seedling death began to occur, which is another reason for the reduction in yield. The differences in the growth duration and stage composition caused by the sowing date are mainly due to the significantly different meteorological factors they are exposed to, especially the changes in light and temperature. Late sowing in autumn leads to the gradual deterioration of light and temperature conditions in the later stage, the slowing down of reproductive growth, and the serious reduction in the filling rate, resulting in difficulty in maturing its grains [45].

4.2. Relationship Between Yield and Its Components and Meteorological Factors

During the filling and fruiting stage of crops, meteorological factors have a significant impact on the yield and its components of crops. Ma Junfeng et al. [46] found that high temperatures and cloudy and rainy weather with little sunshine after flowering would seriously affect the yield of maize, and solar radiation duration and the daily temperature range are important factors influencing the high yield of maize. Meteorological factors can affect the yield by influencing the yield components of crops. For example, Extreme weather can shorten the grain filling period and subsequently affect the 1000-grain weight and limit yield improvement [47]. A larger daily temperature range and more solar radiation duration are conducive to the formation of thousand-grain weight and the number of grains per ear [48]. This experiment also found that meteorological factors can affect the yield by influencing the yield components of buckwheat, causing changes in the yield. Solar radiation duration, the daily temperature range, rainfall, and the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C all have direct or indirect effects on the yield components. Higher mean temperature and solar radiation duration are both conducive to the increase in thousand-grain weight, the number of grains per plant, and the setting rate of tartary buckwheat (Figure 1). Shilo et al. [49] found that climatic conditions at the filling stage were the main factors affecting grain yield and quality of wheat. In this experiment, the most important meteorological factors affecting the thousand-grain weight are the mean temperature and rainfall during the filling and fruiting stage (Figure 1A; Table 4). Further analysis of the yield data in 2022 and 2023 found that the thousand-grain weight of buckwheat sown in July was 23.1–35.7% and 31.7–40.6% lower respectively than that sown in June (Table 3). In terms of the number of grains per plant, the most important factors are solar radiation duration and rainfall. Ma Yihu et al. [50] also believe in the study of rice that the increase in solar radiation duration can improve the light conditions in the rice field, thereby promoting the tiller number and the accumulation of nutrients and increasing the number of grains per ear. Xiang et al. [51] consider that the setting rate is a key indicator affecting the yield of tartary buckwheat. In this experiment, it was found that the mean temperature and the number of days with a temperature of ≤15 °C mainly affect the increase in its setting rate, indicating that temperature is a key meteorological indicator affecting setting because low temperature can affect the flowering, pollination, and fertilization of crops, increasing the empty-shell rate [52]. In the case of rice, Loitongbam et al. [53] also believe that low temperature can cause the degradation of spikelets, leading to sterility of rice and an increase in the empty-shell rate. Therefore, in the production of buckwheat, choosing an appropriate sowing date to obtain meteorological factors conducive to improving the yield components is of great significance for increasing the yield of tartary buckwheat.

4.3. Relationship Between Grain Quality and Meteorological Factors

It has been found that there is a close relationship between grain quality and meteorological factors. The key meteorological indicators for the grain protein content of wheat are the mean temperature and the number of days when the maximum temperature is greater than 30 °C respectively [54]. Further, the impact of meteorological indicators such as accumulated temperature before and after flowering and mean temperature on the nutritional quality of grains can be coordinated by adjusting the sowing date [55]. Domingos et al. [56] found that late sowing would lead to a decrease in total antioxidant concentration. Under the conditions of this experiment, the sowing date significantly affects the grain quality of tartary buckwheat. With the postponement of the sowing date, the protein and flavonoid contents increase significantly, while the change trends of the fat and starch contents are opposite, and the change trends in the two years are basically the same (Table 3). Analyzing the relationship between them and meteorological factors, it is found that solar radiation duration is the main meteorological factor affecting the protein, starch, fat, and flavonoid contents of tartary buckwheat grains (Figure 2), all having direct positive or negative effects. According to their indirect path coefficients, it is found that except for the lipid content, the impacts of other meteorological factors on quality all have a certain indirect effect through solar radiation duration (Table 6). The main reason is that the increase in solar radiation duration can improve the light-receiving conditions of the tartary buckwheat field population, change the photosynthetic performance of the population, increase the material accumulation of plants, and thus improve the quality of grains [57]. In the case of wheat, Cheng Lin et al. [58] also found that the solar radiation duration during the maturity-harvest period has a significant impact on most quality indicators. At the same time, it was also found that temperature is the most important meteorological factor affecting the quality of wheat. Liu et al. [59] showed that high temperatures at the flowering stage would lead to the sterility of buckwheat and a decrease in yield. In this experiment, temperature is the most important meteorological factor for the starch content (Figure 2), and it can have a certain indirect positive effect through the daily temperature range, indicating that temperature has a crucial impact on the quality of grains. In the study of rice, it was also found that the quality indicators that are greatly affected by temperature during the filling stage are gel consistency, gelatinization temperature, and brown rice rate [60]. Therefore, in the discovery of the relationship between meteorological factors and quality, the main meteorological factors affecting various quality indicators are different. When planting, the quality of crops can be regulated according to the changes in meteorological factors. Meanwhile, the meteorological factors during the growth period of crops can be regulated by means of sowing date, etc., so as to achieve the purpose of regulating quality indicators.

5. Conclusions

The temperature during the flowering and fruiting stage of tartary buckwheat is the main climatic factor restricting its yield and quality. Selecting an appropriate sowing date can help resist, tolerate, and avoid the adverse conditions of low temperature and insufficient sunlight, thereby increasing the yield of tartary buckwheat. An appropriate sowing date (in June) enables the flowering and fruiting stage to have a suitable temperature and better sunlight. It also has a direct positive effect on the thousand-grain weight and the number of grains per plant through a better daily temperature range and more solar radiation duration, alleviates the direct negative effect of low temperature, increases the yield of tartary buckwheat, and improves its quality. Under the conditions of this experiment, it is not advisable to sow autumn tartary buckwheat after July. Meanwhile, in other regions, it is not advisable to sow autumn tartary buckwheat when the number of days with a mean temperature of ≤15 °C during the flowering and fruiting stage exceeds 18 days.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, X.C.; methodology, X.C. and S.L.; software, X.C. and S.L.; validation, J.Z., Z.Y., S.L., L.L. and H.C.; formal analysis, J.Z., Z.Y. and L.L.; investigation resources, X.C.; data curation, J.Z. and J.S.; writing-original draft preparation, J.Z. and J.S.; writing-review and editing, X.C.; visualization, J.Z., S.L., L.L. and H.C.; supervision, X.C.; project administration, X.C. and S.L.; funding acquisition, X.C. and J.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Shanxi Agricultural University Science and Technology Innovation Promotion Project (CXGC2023096), the earmarked fund for Modern Agro-Industry Technology Research System (2025CYJSTX03-23).

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Agronomy 15 00950 g001
Figure 1. Path diagram among 1000-grain weight (A), seeds per plant (B), and seed setting rate (C) of Tartary buckwheat and meteorological factors. Y1, Y2, and Y3 indicate 1000-grain weight, seeds per plant, and seed setting rate respectively. X1, X2, X3, X4, and X5 indicate mean daily temperature, ≤15 °C days, solar radiation duration, rainfall, and diurnal temperature range during grain filling stage respectively. P: Path coefficient. The data on the arc are correlation coefficients.
Figure 1. Path diagram among 1000-grain weight (A), seeds per plant (B), and seed setting rate (C) of Tartary buckwheat and meteorological factors. Y1, Y2, and Y3 indicate 1000-grain weight, seeds per plant, and seed setting rate respectively. X1, X2, X3, X4, and X5 indicate mean daily temperature, ≤15 °C days, solar radiation duration, rainfall, and diurnal temperature range during grain filling stage respectively. P: Path coefficient. The data on the arc are correlation coefficients.
Agronomy 15 00950 g001
Agronomy 15 00950 g002
Figure 2. Path diagram among meteorological factors and protein (A), crude fat (B), starch (C), and flavonoid content (D) of Tartary buckwheat. Y1, Y2, Y3, and Y4 indicate the protein, starch, crude fat, and flavonoid content of Tartary buckwheat respectively. X1, X2, X3, X4, and X5 indicate mean daily temperature, ≤15 °C days, solar radiation duration, rainfall, and diurnal temperature range during grain filling stage respectively. P: Path coefficient.
Figure 2. Path diagram among meteorological factors and protein (A), crude fat (B), starch (C), and flavonoid content (D) of Tartary buckwheat. Y1, Y2, Y3, and Y4 indicate the protein, starch, crude fat, and flavonoid content of Tartary buckwheat respectively. X1, X2, X3, X4, and X5 indicate mean daily temperature, ≤15 °C days, solar radiation duration, rainfall, and diurnal temperature range during grain filling stage respectively. P: Path coefficient.
Agronomy 15 00950 g002
Table 1. Meteorological factors change at different sowing dates of Tartary buckwheat from flowering to maturity.
Table 1. Meteorological factors change at different sowing dates of Tartary buckwheat from flowering to maturity.
YearSowing DateX1 (°C)X2 (d)X3 (h)X4 (mm)X5 (°C)
20226/1516.712338.519.86.8
6/2615.317332.724.45.4
7/611.829318.58.46.6
7/178.930309.01.69.1
20236/1916.811333.624.45.7
6/3015.318329.524.25.4
7/1010.727316.610.27.3
7/219.031307.32.09.0
X1, X2, X3, X4, and X5 indicate mean daily temperature, ≤15 °C days, solar radiation duration, rainfall, and diurnal temperature range during grain filling stage, respectively.
Table 2. Tartary buckwheat growth process at different sowing dates (month/day).
Table 2. Tartary buckwheat growth process at different sowing dates (month/day).
YearSowing DateEmergence StageSquaring PeriodFull-Bloom StageMaturity
20226/157/218/139/810/5
6/268/38/189/1110/11
7/68/149/79/2410/30
7/178/279/199/3111/18
20236/197/248/189/1410/10
6/308/68/229/1410/15
7/108/189/109/2811/3
7/219/59/2510/411/21
Table 3. Yield performance of Tartary buckwheat at different sowing dates (Mean ± SD).
Table 3. Yield performance of Tartary buckwheat at different sowing dates (Mean ± SD).
YearSowing DateYield
kg·hm2		1000-Seeds Weight (g)Seeds per PlantSeed Weight per Plant (g)Seed Setting Rate (%)
20226/152187.7 ± 78.6 a22.69 ± 0.39 a183.9 ± 4.7 a4.17 ± 0.06 a21.84 ± 0.55 a
6/261810.1 ± 174.3 b22.30 ± 0.71 a161.7 ± 9.4 a3.61 ± 0.29 b17.00 ± 0.49 b
7/6660.0 ± 62.4 c17.05 ± 0.36 b105.5 ± 5.4 b1.80 ± 0.11 c11.40 ± 0.74 c
7/17415.8 ± 60.4 c14.73 ± 0.59 c87.7 ± 1.9 c1.29 ± 0.07 d8.62 ± 0.55 d
20236/191983.5 ± 167.0 a22.92 ± 0.12 a175.4 ± 3.4 a6.43 ± 0.16 a21.49 ± 0.92 a
6/301746.2 ± 189.9 a22.64 ± 0.52 a155.7 ± 14.2 a5.64 ± 0.52 a16.48 ± 0.82 ab
7/10596.3 ± 116.6 b15.38 ± 0.87 b104.8 ± 12.5 b2.59 ± 0.43 b11.17 ± 0.59 bc
7/21364.4 ± 89.1 b13.73 ± 0.59 b83.0 ± 9.0 c1.83 ± 0.28 b7.84 ± 0.53 c
Values within a column followed by different lowercase letters are significantly different at p < 0.05.
Table 4. The effect of different sowing dates on quality of Tartary buckwheat (Mean ± SD).
Table 4. The effect of different sowing dates on quality of Tartary buckwheat (Mean ± SD).
YearSowing DateFlavonoid Content (%)Protein Content (%)Starch Content (%)Lipid Content (%)
20226/151.719 ± 0.043 c10.65 ± 0.118 c74.43 ± 0.97 a2.470 ± 0.128 a
6/261.813 ± 0.041 bc11.26 ± 0.070 b71.77 ± 0.51 b2.350 ± 0.070 ab
7/61.870 ± 0.049 ab12.35 ± 0.111 a68.80 ± 0.36 c2.243 ± 0.093 bc
7/171.890 ± 0.038 a12.33 ± 0.078 a65.83 ± 0.45 d2.103 ± 0.067 c
20236/191.864 ± 0.017 c11.25 ± 0.086 c73.37 ± 1.11 a2.650 ± 0.089 a
6/302.039 ± 0.017 bc11.85 ± 0.082 b70.57 ± 1.25 b2.520 ± 0.072 ab
7/102.076 ± 0.012 ab12.69 ± 0.050 b66.50 ± 0.66 c2.377 ± 0.085 bc
7/212.109 ± 0.027 a12.77 ± 0.025 a64.47 ± 1.11 d2.247 ± 0.078 c
Values within a column followed by different lowercase letters are means significantly different at p < 0.05.
Table 5. Indirect path coefficient among meteorological factors and 1000-grain weight, seeds per plant, and seed setting rate of Tartary buckwheat during grain filling stage in different sowing time treatments.
Table 5. Indirect path coefficient among meteorological factors and 1000-grain weight, seeds per plant, and seed setting rate of Tartary buckwheat during grain filling stage in different sowing time treatments.
Meteorological FactorY1
X1X2X3X4X5
X1 −0.52340.51970.69950.0430
X2−0.7297 0.49050.62940.0324
X3−0.7561−0.5118 0.66890.0409
X4−0.7192−0.46410.4726 0.0509
X5−0.5705−0.30770.37290.6574
Meteorological FactorY2
X1X2X3X4X5
X1 −0.24530.48590.26610.1511
X20.1359 0.45850.23940.1137
X30.1408−0.2399 0.25440.1437
X40.1340−0.21760.4418 0.1790
X50.1063−0.14430.34870.2500
Meteorological FactorY3
X1X2X3X4X5
X1 −0.65880.0916−0.5947−0.1272
X20.6361 0.0864−0.5351−0.0957
X30.6592−0.6443 −0.5687−0.1210
X40.6268−0.58420.0833 −0.1507
X50.4973−0.38730.0657−0.5589
Y1, Y2, and Y3 indicate 1000-grain weight, seeds per plant, and seed setting rate respectively. X1, X2, X3, X4, and X5 indicate mean daily temperature, ≤15 °C days, solar radiation duration, rainfall, and diurnal temperature range during grain filling stage respectively.
Table 6. Indirect path coefficient among meteorological factors and protein, crude fat, starch, and flavonoid content of Tartary buckwheat during grain filling stage in different sowing time treatments.
Table 6. Indirect path coefficient among meteorological factors and protein, crude fat, starch, and flavonoid content of Tartary buckwheat during grain filling stage in different sowing time treatments.
Meteorological FactorY1
X1X2X3X4X5
X1 −0.4506−1.2997−0.7690−0.7798
X2−0.1516 −1.2267−0.6919−0.5865
X3−0.1571−0.4407 −0.7353−0.7417
X4−0.1494−0.3996−1.1819 −0.9237
X5−0.1185−0.2650−0.9327−0.7226
Meteorological FactorY2
X1X2X3X4X5
X1 0.21560.5209−0.31970.0901
X21.0416 0.4917−0.28770.0677
X31.07920.2108 −0.30570.0857
X41.02650.19110.4737 0.1067
X50.81430.12670.3738−0.3004
Meteorological FactorY3
X1X2X3X4X5
X1 −2.0541−1.9643−1.6819−1.0637
X21.1513 −1.8540−1.5133−0.8000
X31.1930−2.0089 −1.6081−1.0118
X41.1346−1.8215−1.7863 −1.2601
X50.9001−1.2080−1.4097−1.5804
Meteorological FactorY4
X1X2X3X4X5
X1 −1.2199−2.2571−0.08870−0.7321
X2−0.2931 −2.1304−0.07981−0.5506
X3−0.3037−1.1930 −0.08480−0.6964
X4−0.2889−1.0817−2.0526 −0.8673
X5−0.2292−0.7172−1.6198−0.08335
Y1, Y2, Y3, and Y4 indicate protein, starch, crude fat, and flavonoid content of Tartary buckwheat respectively. X1, X2, X3, X4, and X5 indicate mean daily temperature, ≤15 °C days, solar radiation duration, rainfall, and diurnal temperature range during grain filling stage respectively.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Zhang, J.; Sun, J.; Chen, H.; Yan, Z.; Liu, S.; Liu, L.; Cao, X. Path Analysis on the Meteorological Factors Impacting Yield of Tartary Buckwheat at Different Sowing Dates. Agronomy 2025, 15, 950. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040950

AMA Style

Zhang J, Sun J, Chen H, Yan Z, Liu S, Liu L, Cao X. Path Analysis on the Meteorological Factors Impacting Yield of Tartary Buckwheat at Different Sowing Dates. Agronomy. 2025; 15(4):950. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040950

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Jin, Jing Sun, Hong Chen, Zhiming Yan, Sichen Liu, Longlong Liu, and Xiaoning Cao. 2025. "Path Analysis on the Meteorological Factors Impacting Yield of Tartary Buckwheat at Different Sowing Dates" Agronomy 15, no. 4: 950. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040950

APA Style

Zhang, J., Sun, J., Chen, H., Yan, Z., Liu, S., Liu, L., & Cao, X. (2025). Path Analysis on the Meteorological Factors Impacting Yield of Tartary Buckwheat at Different Sowing Dates. Agronomy, 15(4), 950. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040950

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