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Article

Health Risk Assessment of Tetracyclines Contamination in Soil-Cabbage (Brassica campestris L. ssp. chinensis) System

by
Di Liu
1,2,3,
Md. Jahidul Islam Shohag
2,4,
Weiwen Qiu
5,
Lingli Lu
2,
Yuyan Wang
1,2,3 and
Xiaoe Yang
2,*
1
Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Watershed Ecological Process and Information, Jiujiang University, Jiujiang 332005, China
2
Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Ecological Health, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
3
College of Resources & Environment, Jiujiang University, Jiujiang 332005, China
4
Department of Agriculture, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science and Technology University, Gopalganj 8100, Bangladesh
5
The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, Private Bag 3230, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 768; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040768
Submission received: 5 February 2025 / Revised: 7 March 2025 / Accepted: 19 March 2025 / Published: 21 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Comparison of Sustainable Approaches in Conservation and Protected Agriculture around the World)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Tetracyclines (TCs) pollution in vegetable fields is a widely recognized concern, yet the health and ecological risks of TCs residues in the soil–cabbage food chain remain unclear. This study used enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to investigate the health risks associated with TCs contamination in soil–cabbage (Brassica campestris L. ssp. chinensis) systems to better understand TCs accumulation in soil–cabbage and its impact on human health. The human health risks of the edible parts of Chinese cabbage and the ecological risks of TCs-contaminated soils were assessed using the health risk quotient method (RQ) and risk quotient method, respectively. The results showed that after 65 days of tetracycline (TC), chlortetracycline (CTC), and oxytetracycline (OTC) treatments, the degradation rates of TCs in soil were higher in black soil than in purplish clay soil, following the order of OTC > CTC > TC. As the three types of TCs concentration increased (0–20 mg kg−1), their accumulation in the leaves and roots of Chinese cabbage in purplish clay soil was generally higher than in black soil. The health risk values of the three types of TCs in Chinese cabbage were also higher in purplish clay soil than in black soil, following the order of TC > CTC > OTC. Under controlled pot experimental conditions, the TC content in Chinese cabbage grown in purplish clay soil posed moderate risks to children aged 1–6 years (0.1 < HQ < 1.0), while the CTC and OTC contents in Chinese cabbage leaves indicated low risks to both adults and children (HQ ≤ 0.1). Additionally, all three TCs in both soils posed high ecological risks (RQ ≥ 1.0), with risk values being higher in purplish clay soil than in black soil, following the order of TC > CTC > OTC. Consequently, more fertile soils can help mitigate the impact of TCs pollution on human health and ecological safety.

1. Introduction

Tetracyclines (TCs), among the most widely used antibiotics in China, are increasingly contaminating soils [1], and can enter the human body through the food chain, posing a threat to human health [2]. Chinese cabbage, a widely cultivated and high-yielding vegetable with shallow roots that grow primarily in the topsoil, is particularly susceptible to TCs contamination [3,4,5]. Studies have shown a positive correlation between TC concentrations in soil and the levels of these antibiotics in vegetables [6]. The extent of TCs uptake by vegetables depends on various factors, including the type of TCs, soil characteristics, vegetable species, and cultivation conditions [7].
The annual usage of TCs in China can reach 12,000 tons [8], and they are widely detected and present in high concentrations in vegetable growing soils [9,10]. TCs pollution not only affects the growth of vegetables but is also absorbed and accumulated by vegetables [7,11], posing a serious threat to both vegetable and soil ecological security. However, the diversity of soil types in China adds complexity to understanding the migration, transformation, and biological effects of antibiotics in the environment. Notably, as typical soil types for vegetable cultivation, the distinct physical and chemical properties of purplish clay in southern China and black soil in northern China could lead to significant variations in the migration and transformation of pollutants within the soil [12]. Consequently, Chinese cabbage grown in soils contaminated with TCs may accumulate varying levels of these antibiotics, leading to different potential health impacts. Although TCs are commonly detected at high levels in livestock manure and farmland [13,14,15,16], the concentrations found in the edible parts of most vegetables are relatively low. However, a small proportion of vegetables may contain TCs levels exceeding the ecotoxicity threshold (100 μg kg–1), as established by the Steering Committee of Veterinary International Committee on Harmonization [6,17]. Generally, the ratio of the estimated daily intake to the acceptable daily intake (ADI) is calculated to assess the risk. ADI is the maximum amount of residue that may be consumed daily over a lifetime without causing significant health problems in consumers [2], and the ADI of tetracycline (TC), oxytetracycline (OTC), and chlortetracycline (CTC) are 5.7, 5 and 10 μg (kg d)−1 [18]. Regardless of concentration, long-term TCs consumption can still harm human health. For instance, excessive levels of TCs in the human body can cause liver damage [19], impair tooth and bone development, and induce resistance genes, leading to the emergence of ’super bacteria’ that are resistant to antibiotics and difficult to treat [20,21]. To address these concerns, it is essential to investigate TCs accumulation and exposure within the soil–vegetable–food chain system to assess the ecological safety and health risks of TCs.
Characterized by rich nutritional composition and versatile applications, the annual production of Chinese cabbage reaches 37.5 million tons nationwide in recent years [22]. With rising living standards and an increasing focus on healthy eating, the demand for higher quality Chinese cabbage is growing. Therefore, it is important to conduct a risk assessment of cabbage quality. Currently, exposure assessment models are the most commonly used method for evaluating environmental pollutants [12,23,24]. While existing studies primarily focus on antibiotic residues in conventional farm soils [7,25,26,27,28,29], limited research has been conducted on the risk assessment of TCs in diverse soil–vegetable systems. Based on previous studies, we propose that significant differences exist in the migration, accumulation, and degradation characteristics, and the risk assessment of TCs between contaminated purplish clay and black soil–cabbage systems. Specifically, the objectives of this study were to (i) assess the impact of TCs pollution on ecological safety and human health in different soils, and (ii) provide a theoretical framework for evaluating antibiotic risks in soil–vegetable systems and strategies to mitigate the migration and accumulation of antibiotics in the food chain. By offering critical insights into the ecological and health impacts of TCs contamination, this study contributes valuable data for developing strategies to manage antibiotic residues in agriculture.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Seeds and Soils

Seeds of Chinese cabbage (Brassica campestris L. ssp. chinensis) ‘Zaoshu 8’ were sourced from the Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences. In our preliminary research, we initially tested four soil types. However, the growth of Chinese cabbage was limited in red soil and brick red soil due to their low fertility. As a result, we selected black soil and purplish clay, which differ significantly in their physical and chemical properties, but offer relatively high fertility. The selected soils, purplish clay and black soil, were collected from farmland in Zhejiang Province (Southern China) and Heilongjiang Province (Northern China), respectively. The soils were classified as purplish clay and black soils based on their properties (Table 1). The nutrients in black soil are higher than those in purplish clay. The available phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) levels were determined following the methodologies outlined in the book Soil Agro-Chemical Analysis [30]. The measurements of soil total nitrogen (N), pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), organic matter (OM) content, and particle size density (PSD) were conducted following the methodologies outlined by Tan (2005), Chaturvedi and Sankar (2006), Hendershot and Duquette (1986), Rashid et al. (2001), and Day (1965), respectively [31,32,33,34,35]. Initial concentrations of TC, CTC and OTC in both soils were below the detection limit.

2.2. Pot Experiment

A pot culture experiment in the greenhouse was conducted at Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, from October to December 2015, with temperatures ranging from 10 to 20 °C. Soil samples were collected from the 0–40 cm layer of purplish clay and black soil. The soils were air-dried for over 6 months in a cool and shady place, sieved through a 10-mesh for the experiment. First, 500 g of homogenized soil sample was placed into a 1.2 dm3 plastic pot, and 100 mL of TC solution at varying concentrations (0, 2.5, 5, 10, 15, and 20 mg kg−1) was added. After equilibrating for one day, ’Zaoshu 8’ seeds, disinfected with 0.3% potassium permanganate, were sown at a depth of approximately 2 cm (25 seeds per pot). Soil moisture levels remained at 70% of the soil’s maximum water retention capacity throughout the experiment. After 65 days, Chinese cabbage leaves and roots were harvested for TCs analysis. Fresh samples were thoroughly rinsed with tap water, washed three times with ultrapure water, separated into roots and leaves, quickly frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at −80 °C.
To study TCs degradation in the soils over time, 20 mg kg⁻¹ of TC, OTC, and CTC were applied to uncontaminated soil samples. After thorough mixing and equilibration, three TCs concentrations in the soils were measured on days 7, 14, 21, 28, 30, and 65. Collected soil samples were triturated, passed through a 100-mesh sieve, and stored at −80 °C for analysis.
The degradation rate of TCs in the soil was calculated using the following formula [36]:
Degradation Rate = (1 − Ct/C0) × 100%
where ‘Ct’ represents the TCs content in the soil at time t (mg kg−1), and ‘C0’ represents the initial soil TCs concentration (mg kg−1).
The concentrations of TCs in the Chinese cabbage and soil were determined using ELISA assay kits for TC, CTC, and OTC, purchased from Shenzhen Yusong biotechnology Co. Ltd. (Shenzhen, China), following the modified method by Kumar et al. [37]. Firstly, fresh cabbage samples were washed and ground, while freeze-dried soil samples were sieved through a 100-mesh screen. Subsequently, 0.5 ± 0.05 g of cabbage sample and 1.0 ± 0.05 g of soil sample were accurately weighed and placed into a 50 mL centrifuge tube, respectively. Subsequently, 5 mL of sample diluent was added, followed by 5 min of shaking and centrifuging at 4000 r min−1. The supernatant was then filtered through a 0.45 µm filter membrane. Filtered liquid (100 µL) was transferred to a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube, and 900 µL of sample diluent was added. The mixture was vortexed for 15 s to homogenize. Finally, 100 µL of the homogenized solution was transferred to a 96-well plate for subsequent analysis. The detailed detection procedure followed the ELISA kit manufacturer’s instructions. A microplate spectrophotometer (Bio-Rad-680, Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA) was used to measure the absorbance at a 450 nm wavelength.

2.3. Risk Assessment

2.3.1. Health Risk Assessment

This study adopts the health hazard quotient method based on the acceptable daily intake (ADI–HQ) to conduct a human health risk assessment for the contamination of TCs in the edible leaf, specifically the ratio of the average daily dose (ADD) to the acceptable daily intake (ADI), as calculated by Equation (2).
HQ = ADD/ADI
wherein, ADI is the acceptable daily intake, with values 5.7, 5, and 10 μg (kg d)−1 for TC, CTC, and OTC, respectively [18], ADD can be calculated using Equation (3).
ADD = Cv × IR/BW
wherein, ‘Cv’ is the concentration of a single TCs in Chinese cabbage leaves (mg kg−1), IR is the daily Chinese cabbage intake (500 g d−1 for adults and 300 g d−1 for children) [38], and BW stands for body weight, using the national weight survey conducted by the General Administration of Sport of China and other agencies in 2014.
Risk levels were classified as follows: HQ ≤ 0.1, low risk; 0.1 < HQ < 1, medium risk; and HQ ≥ 1, high risk.

2.3.2. Ecological Risk Assessment

Ecological risk was evaluated using the risk quotient (RQ) method, following the concentration-effect assessment of environmental hazards in the Framework Guidelines for Technical Methods of Environmental Risk Assessment of Chemical Substances (Trial) [39], issued by the Ministry of Ecology and Environment of China. RQ was calculated using the following equations:
PNECwater = EC50/AF
PNECSoil = PNECwater•Kd
RQ = PEC/PNECSoil
where PNECwater is the predicted no-effect concentration in water (μg L−1), EC50 is the TCs concentration causing 50% of the maximum effect (mg L−1), and AF is the assessment factor (1000). Kd is the soil–water partition coefficient (L kg−1). PEC is the actual TCs concentration in soil (mg kg−1), and PNECsoil represents the no-effect concentration in soil (mg kg−1). The parameter values (the TC, CTC, and OTC values of PNECsoil were 0.098, 0.282, and 0.116 mg kg−1, respectively) were obtained from Chu et al. [40].
Risk levels were classified as follows: RQ ≤ 0.1, low risk; 0.1 < RQ < 1, medium risk; and RQ ≥ 1, high risk.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

Results were expressed as the mean ± standard error (SE) and analyzed using the SPSS software (version 16.0). Each treatment was performed in triplicates. Triplicate experimental groups were subjected to an ANOVA with Duncan’s Post Hoc test for intergroup comparisons.

3. Results

3.1. The Degradation of Tetracyclines in the Soils

Figure 1 illustrates distinct degradation patterns of TC, OTC, and CTC in purplish clay and black soils. The concentration decay curves exhibited biphasic characteristics in both soil types, with an initial rapid degradation phase (0–7 days) transitioning to a prolonged slower phase. Notably, black soil demonstrated significantly higher degradation efficiencies compared to purplish clay, with the degradation efficiency following the order of OTC > CTC > TC. After 65 days, the degradation rates in purplish clay were 95.18% for TC, 96.24% for OTC, and 95.47% for CTC, whereas in black soil, they reached 98.05%, 98.90%, and 98.52%, respectively.

3.2. Accumulation of Tetracyclines in Chinese Cabbage

The accumulation of TC, OTC, and CTC in Chinese cabbage grown in purplish clay and black soils is presented in Figure 2. TCs accumulation in the roots and leaves increased with higher soil concentrations of the three types of TCs. In both soil types, the accumulation of TC and CTC was higher in the leaves compared to the roots, with overall higher levels observed in Chinese cabbage grown in purplish clay than in black soil. Notably, OTC was not detected in the leaves; however, its accumulation in the roots was higher in purplish clay than in black soil. Within the same soil type, three TC accumulations in the roots and leaves followed the order of TC > CTC > OTC.

3.3. The Average Daily Dose of Tetracyclines in the Soil–Cabbage Ecosystem

As shown in Table 2 and Table 3, the analysis of the ADD of the three types of TCs exposure through Chinese cabbage revealed that the ADD of OTC in Chinese cabbage was undetectable. Overall, under the same soil conditions, the ADD of TC (0.097–0.780 μg kg−1 day−1) was higher than that of CTC (0.014–0.025 μg kg−1 day−1). For Chinese cabbage grown on purplish clay soil, the ADDs of TC and CTC (0.019–0.780 μg kg−1 day−1) were higher than those grown in black soil (0.014–0.581 μg kg−1 day−1). Additionally, the ADDs for females (0.016–0.143 μg kg−1 day−1) were higher than those for males (0.014–0.115 μg kg−1 day−1), and the ADDs for children (0.011–0.780 μg kg−1 day−1) were higher than those for adults (0.014–0.143 μg kg−1 day−1).

3.4. Health Risk Assessment for Tetracyclines in Vegetable

The health risk assessment for TCs in Chinese cabbage is shown in Figure 3. The hazard quotients (HQs) for TC and CTC in Chinese cabbage were higher in females compared to males, and significantly higher in children than in adults. In addition, the HQs of Chinese cabbage grown in purplish clay soil were higher than those of Chinese cabbage grown in black soil. In general, all HQ values were below 1.0 (Figure 3), indicating no significant risk to health. However, Chinese cabbage grown in purplish clay posed a medium risk to children aged 1–6 years (HQ > 0.1). These findings suggest that after 65 days of TCs treatment in both soil types, the consumption of Chinese cabbage grown in purplish clay or black soil would not pose a health risk to adults but might present potential risks to children, particularly when grown in TC contaminated purplish clay.

3.5. Ecological Risk Assessment for Tetracyclines in Soil

The RQ values for the three TCs in two soils from the pot experiment are presented in Figure 4. The RQ values followed the order of TC > OTC > CTC in both purplish clay and black soil. Under the same antibiotic treatment conditions, the RQ values of the three TCs were higher in purplish clay compared to black soil. Notably, all RQ values exceeded 1.0, indicating that TCs posed a high ecological risk in both soil types.

4. Discussion

The present study revealed that the degradation rate of TCs followed the order of OTC > CTC > TC, with black soil exhibiting higher degradation rates compared to purplish clay (Figure 1), which aligned with previous research [41]. The degradation rate of TCs in soil is influenced by their molecular structure, environmental conditions, and microbial activity. Their specific functional groups and spatial configurations determine their interaction patterns with microorganisms, light, and chemical reagents [42,43]. Some researchers have found that microorganisms were capable of degrading toxic and harmful substances [44,45], high levels of N, P, K, OM, and CEC enhanced bacterial activity in the soil, promoting higher degradation rates [46,47]. These findings suggested that soil physicochemical properties, TCs types, and microorganisms played a crucial role in TCs degradation. Additionally, the accumulation of TCs in the roots and leaves of Chinese cabbage followed the order of TC > CTC > OTC, increasing with the concentrations of the three TCs increased in the soil (Figure 2). Previous research using desorption experiments found that TC and CTC were more likely to accumulate in soil, posing a higher risk of soil ecological pollution [41]. The amount of TCs accumulated in Chinese cabbage was also influenced by their residual concentrations in soil. Studies have shown that differences in molecular weight and structure of TCs led to varying adsorption–desorption processes in the soil [41], which affected their ability to enter cabbage. In addition, due to the higher content of sand particles in black soil (Table 1), the ability of soil to adsorb TCs decreased, leading to higher levels TCs accumulated in Chinese cabbage grown in purplish clay compared to black soil. TCs contamination in Chinese cabbage was mainly due to the uptake and translation from contaminated soil through their roots. Although excessive concentrations of antibiotics tend to accumulate in the roots, the biomass of leaves is much greater than that of roots [36], resulting in TC and CTC accumulation in leaves being higher than in roots (Figure 2), which aligned with previous findings by He et al. [48]. These results demonstrated that TCs accumulation in Chinese cabbage was determined primarily by the ability of uptake and translation of TCs residue from the soil, as well as the degradation characteristics of TCs in different soils.
Health and ecological risk assessments were conducted to evaluate the potential hazards and guide environmental interventions. In the experiment, we selected Chinese cabbage grown in the soil with three TCs concentrations of 20 mg kg−1 for the risk assessment research. Although the World Health Organization has set the ADI values for the three types of TCs at 30 μg (kg d) −1 [3], we have adopted a more stringent standard, selecting TC, OTC, and CTC with ADI values of 5.7, 5, and 10 μg (kg d) −1 [18]. The hazard quotient was obtained by calculating the ratio of ADD to ADI. The results showed that TC residues in edible parts of Chinese cabbage grown in purplish clay soil posed a medium risk to children aged 1–6 years (Figure 3), highlighting a potential health concern. However, under other treatment conditions, the residues of the three types of TCs in edible parts of Chinese cabbage grown in purplish clay soil and black soil did not exceed the ADI. Overall, although the three types of TCs had a certain level of ADD in human, the HQ values for adults were less than 0.1, indicating negligible health risks from Chinese cabbage consumption (Table 2 and Table 3, Figure 3). This finding is consistent with earlier studies on TCs in honey and vegetable crops [7,17,24]. However, the long-term health effects of low concentrations of TCs and other antibiotics through dietary intake should not be overlooked. Previous studies have shown that prolonged exposure to even low pollutant concentrations, or their interaction with other contaminants like heavy metals, can significantly harm organisms [49]. Thus, prolonged consumption of Chinese cabbage containing low TC concentrations may pose a potential risk to human health, especially for children. Additionally, ecological risk assessments revealed that the residues of the three types of TCs in both soils were at high risk, with the RQ value being higher in purplish clay soil than in black soil, following the order of TC > OTC > CTC (Figure 4). These findings indicated the substantial ecological risks of TCs in soil environments (RQ > 1), whereas dietary exposure through vegetables posed negligible health risks, particularly in soils with high fertility. The process of human exposure to TCs through the consumption of vegetables grown in TCs-contaminated soils was affected by complex factors, including body weight, vegetable consumption rate, age, gender, soil properties, and antibiotic types, as previously mentioned [17,50]. Moreover, compared to fertile soil, vegetable crops in infertile soil contaminated with TCs pose a higher health risk to humans.

5. Conclusions

The degradation rates of the three types of TCs in both purplish clay and black soil exceeded 95% after long-time treatment, with higher degradation rates observed in fertile black soil. The accumulation of the three types of TCs in Chinese cabbage increased proportionally with soil TCs levels ranging from 0 to 20 mg kg−1. The migration and accumulation of TCs in vegetables were influenced by soil types and antibiotic characteristics. The risk assessment results indicated that the three TCs residues in both soils presented a high ecological risk, while the Chinese cabbage grown in the polluted soils posed a moderate or low health risk to humans. Consequently, the intake of TC, CTC, or OTC solely through the food chain of purplish clay/black soil-cabbage posed a low risk to adult health. However, Chinese cabbage grown in barren purplish clay may present potential risks to children’s health. These findings provide a scientific basis for TCs pollution identification, targeted prevention, and control measures.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, X.Y. and L.L.; Software, D.L.; Formal analysis, D.L., M.J.I.S. and W.Q.; Resources, D.L.; Data curation, Y.W.; Writing—original draft preparation, D.L.; Writing—review and editing, M.J.I.S. and W.Q.; Supervision, X.Y.; Project administration, X.Y. and L.L.; Funding acquisition, X.Y., L.L. and D.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Jiangxi Provincial Natural Science Foundation (20224BAB205050), National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2023YFC3706705), Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Watershed Ecological Process and Information (No. 2023SSY01052), Jiangxi Ganpo Juncai Support Program for Higher Education Leading Talent Training Project (Jiangxi Provincial Government Document No. 95 [2024]) and Jiujiang Science and Technology Project (No. S2024KXJJ0001).

Data Availability Statement

All the data obtained in this study are mentioned in the main text, further data will be provided on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

We are also thankful to Ying Feng and Shengke Tian for their assistance with experimental design and data analysis. In addition, we acknowledge the contributions of Siyu Chen and Rukhsanda Aziz, who helped us with the statistical analysis and language polishing.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Agronomy 15 00768 g001
Figure 1. Degradation patterns of TC (Tetracycline, (A)), CTC (Chlortetracycline, (B)), and OTC (Oxytetracycline, (C)) in purplish clay and black soils. Data are expressed as mean ± S.E. with three replicates. Different letters in the same TCs treatment indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).
Figure 1. Degradation patterns of TC (Tetracycline, (A)), CTC (Chlortetracycline, (B)), and OTC (Oxytetracycline, (C)) in purplish clay and black soils. Data are expressed as mean ± S.E. with three replicates. Different letters in the same TCs treatment indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).
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Agronomy 15 00768 g002
Figure 2. Accumulation of TC (Tetracycline, (A,B)), CTC (Chlortetracycline, (C,D)), and OTC (Oxytetracycline, (E)) in the roots and leaves of Chinese cabbage in the purplish clay and black soils. Data are expressed as mean ± S.E. with three replicates. Different letters in the same TCs treatment indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).
Figure 2. Accumulation of TC (Tetracycline, (A,B)), CTC (Chlortetracycline, (C,D)), and OTC (Oxytetracycline, (E)) in the roots and leaves of Chinese cabbage in the purplish clay and black soils. Data are expressed as mean ± S.E. with three replicates. Different letters in the same TCs treatment indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).
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Agronomy 15 00768 g003
Figure 3. The hazard quotient (HQ) values of TCs (TC, CTC, and OTC) in the soil–cabbage system after the 65-day treatment. Note: TC: Tetracycline; CTC: Chlortetracycline. Data are expressed as mean ± S.E. with three replicates.
Figure 3. The hazard quotient (HQ) values of TCs (TC, CTC, and OTC) in the soil–cabbage system after the 65-day treatment. Note: TC: Tetracycline; CTC: Chlortetracycline. Data are expressed as mean ± S.E. with three replicates.
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Agronomy 15 00768 g004
Figure 4. The risk quotient (RQ) values of TCs (TC, CTC, and OTC) in the purplish clay and black soil after the 65-day treatment. Note: TC: Tetracycline; CTC: Chlortetracycline; OTC: Oxytetracycline. Data are expressed as mean ± S.E. with three replicates.
Figure 4. The risk quotient (RQ) values of TCs (TC, CTC, and OTC) in the purplish clay and black soil after the 65-day treatment. Note: TC: Tetracycline; CTC: Chlortetracycline; OTC: Oxytetracycline. Data are expressed as mean ± S.E. with three replicates.
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Table 1. Basic physical and chemical characteristics of the tested soils.
Table 1. Basic physical and chemical characteristics of the tested soils.
ParametersPurplish ClayBlack Soil
pH5.43 ± 0.02 b5.98 ± 0.02 a
Organic Matter (g kg−1)47.09 ± 0.23 b60.57 ± 1.05 a
Total Nitrogen (g kg−1)2.35 ± 0.01 b3.03 ± 0.05 a
Available Phosphorus (mg kg−1)71.76 ± 1.70 b85.27 ± 0.53 a
Available Potassium (mg kg−1)332.83 ± 22.02 b655.55 ± 13.82 a
Cation Exchange Capacity (cmol kg−1) 20.20 ± 1.41 b34.0 ± 2.51 a
Sand (%)11.40 ± 0.26 b20.60 ± 1.54 a
Silt (%)73.0 ± 2.41 a60.20 ± 2.21 b
Clay (%)15.60 ± 1.17 b19.20 ± 1.24 a
Tetracycline (mg kg−1)NDND
Chlortetracycline (mg kg−1)NDND
Oxytetracycline (mg kg−1)NDND
Note: ND: Not detected. Values within the same row followed by different letters indicate significant differences at the p < 0.05 level. Data are expressed as mean ± S.E. with three replicates.
Table 2. The ADD of the three types of TCs for children in the soil–cabbage ecosystem.
Table 2. The ADD of the three types of TCs for children in the soil–cabbage ecosystem.
Age (Year)Weight (kg)ADD (μg kg−1 Day−1)
Purplish Clay TCBlack Soil TCPurplish Clay CTCBlack Soil CTCPurplish Clay OTCBlack Soil OTC
1–3100.780 ± 0.03150.581 ± 0.0570.136 ± 0.0200.022 ± 0.005--
4–6120.650 ± 0.02630.484 ± 0.0560.113 ± 0.0160.019 ± 0.004--
7–9150.520 ± 0.02090.387 ± 0.0380.090 ± 0.0130.015 ± 0.003--
10–12180.434 ± 0.01750.323 ± 0.0320.076 ± 0.0110.012 ± 0.003--
13–15210.372 ± 0.01500.277 ± 0.0270.065 ± 0.0100.011 ± 0.003--
Note: Data were obtained using Chinese cabbage cultivated in soil treated with 20 mg kg−1 of antibiotics. Data are expressed as mean ± S.E. with three replicates. TC: Tetracycline; CTC: Chlortetracycline; OTC: Oxytetracycline; ADD: average daily dose.“-” indicates values below the detection limit.
Table 3. The ADD of tetracyclines for adults in the soil–cabbage ecosystem.
Table 3. The ADD of tetracyclines for adults in the soil–cabbage ecosystem.
Age(Year)GenderWeight (kg)ADD (μg kg−1 Day−1)
Purplish Clay TCBlack Soil TCPurplish Clay CTCBlack Soil CTCPurplish Clay OTCBlack Soil OTC
20–24Male67.20.115 ± 0.0050.085 ± 0.0080.020 ± 0.0030.014 ± 0.003--
Female53.80.143 ± 0.0060.107 ± 0.0100.025 ± 0.0030.018 ± 0.004--
25–29Male70.40.110 ± 0.0040.081 ± 0.0080.019 ± 0.0020.014 ± 0.003--
Female55.30.140 ± 0.0060.104 ± 0.0100.024 ± 0.0030.018 ± 0.004--
30–34Male71.40.108 ± 0.0040.080 ± 0.0080.019 ± 0.0020.014 ± 0.003--
Female56.80.136 ± 0.0050.101 ± 0.0100.024 ± 0.0030.017 ± 0.004--
35–39Male71.50.108 ± 0.0040.080 ± 0.0080.019 ± 0.0020.014 ± 0.003--
Female57.80.134 ± 0.0050.099 ± 0.0100.023 ± 0.0030.017 ± 0.004--
40–44Male71.20.108 ± 0.0040.081 ± 0.0080.019 ± 0.0020.014 ± 0.003--
Female59.00.131 ± 0.0050.097 ± 0.0100.023 ± 0.0030.016 ± 0.004--
45–49Male71.20.108 ± 0.0040.081 ± 0.0080.019 ± 0.0030.014 ± 0.003--
Female59.70.129 ± 0.0050.096 ± 0.0100.023 ± 0.0030.016 ± 0.004--
50–54Male70.60.109 ± 0.0040.081 ± 0.0080.019 ± 0.0020.014 ± 0.003--
Female60.40.128 ± 0.0050.095 ± 0.0090.022 ± 0.0030.016 ± 0.004--
55–59Male69.10.112 ± 0.0050.083 ± 0.0080.020 ± 0.0030.014 ± 0.003--
Female59.40.130 ± 0.0050.097 ± 0.0090.023 ± 0.0030.016 ± 0.004--
Note: Data were obtained from Chinese cabbage grown in soil treated with 20 mg kg−1 of antibiotics. Data are expressed as mean ± S.E. with three replicates. TC: Tetracycline; CTC: Chlortetracycline; OTC: Oxytetracycline; ADD: average daily dose.“-” indicates values below the detection limit.
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Liu, D.; Shohag, M.J.I.; Qiu, W.; Lu, L.; Wang, Y.; Yang, X. Health Risk Assessment of Tetracyclines Contamination in Soil-Cabbage (Brassica campestris L. ssp. chinensis) System. Agronomy 2025, 15, 768. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040768

AMA Style

Liu D, Shohag MJI, Qiu W, Lu L, Wang Y, Yang X. Health Risk Assessment of Tetracyclines Contamination in Soil-Cabbage (Brassica campestris L. ssp. chinensis) System. Agronomy. 2025; 15(4):768. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040768

Chicago/Turabian Style

Liu, Di, Md. Jahidul Islam Shohag, Weiwen Qiu, Lingli Lu, Yuyan Wang, and Xiaoe Yang. 2025. "Health Risk Assessment of Tetracyclines Contamination in Soil-Cabbage (Brassica campestris L. ssp. chinensis) System" Agronomy 15, no. 4: 768. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040768

APA Style

Liu, D., Shohag, M. J. I., Qiu, W., Lu, L., Wang, Y., & Yang, X. (2025). Health Risk Assessment of Tetracyclines Contamination in Soil-Cabbage (Brassica campestris L. ssp. chinensis) System. Agronomy, 15(4), 768. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040768

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