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Volume 12
Issue 2
10.3390/agronomy12020380
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Article

Carbon, Nitrogen and Water Footprints of Organic Rice and Conventional Rice Production over 4 Years of Cultivation: A Case Study in the Lower North of Thailand

by
Noppol Arunrat
1,*,
Sukanya Sereenonchai
1,
Winai Chaowiwat
2,
Can Wang
3,4 and
Ryusuke Hatano
5
1
Faculty of Environment and Resource Studies, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
2
Hydro-Informatics Innovation Division, Hydro Informatics Institute, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
3
State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control (SKLESPC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
4
Tsinghua-Rio Tinto Joint Research Centre for Resources, Energy and Sustainable Development, Beijing 100084, China
5
Laboratory of Soil Science, Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8589, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2022, 12(2), 380; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12020380
Submission received: 11 December 2021 / Revised: 14 January 2022 / Accepted: 1 February 2022 / Published: 3 February 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agroecology, Organic Agriculture and Energy Efficiency of Food Production)
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Abstract

An integrated method is required for comprehensive assessment of the environmental impacts and economic benefits of rice production systems. Therefore, the objective of this study was to apply different footprinting approaches (carbon footprint (CF), nitrogen footprint (NF), water footprint (WF)) and determine the economic return on organic rice farming (OF) and conventional rice farming (CVF) at the farm scale. Over the 4-year study period (2018–2021), the results showed lower net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in OF (3289.1 kg CO2eq ha−1 year−1) than in CVF (4921.7 kg CO2eq ha−1 year−1), indicating that the use of OF can mitigate the GHG emissions from soil carbon sequestration. However, there was a higher CF intensity in OF (1.17 kg CO2eq kg−1 rice yield) than in CVF (0.93 kg CO2eq kg−1 rice yield) due to the lower yield. The NF intensities of OF and CVF were 0.34 and 11.94 kg Neq kg−1 rice yield, respectively. The total WF of CVF (1470.1 m3 ton−1) was higher than that in OF (1216.3 m3 ton−1). The gray water in CVF was significantly higher than that in OF due to the use of chemical fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides. Although the rice yield in OF was nearly two times lower than that in CVF, the economic return was higher due to lower production costs and higher rice prices. However, more field studies and long-term monitoring are needed for future research.
Keywords: carbon footprint; nitrogen footprint; water footprint; soil organic carbon; rice paddy carbon footprint; nitrogen footprint; water footprint; soil organic carbon; rice paddy

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MDPI and ACS Style

Arunrat, N.; Sereenonchai, S.; Chaowiwat, W.; Wang, C.; Hatano, R. Carbon, Nitrogen and Water Footprints of Organic Rice and Conventional Rice Production over 4 Years of Cultivation: A Case Study in the Lower North of Thailand. Agronomy 2022, 12, 380. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12020380

AMA Style

Arunrat N, Sereenonchai S, Chaowiwat W, Wang C, Hatano R. Carbon, Nitrogen and Water Footprints of Organic Rice and Conventional Rice Production over 4 Years of Cultivation: A Case Study in the Lower North of Thailand. Agronomy. 2022; 12(2):380. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12020380

Chicago/Turabian Style

Arunrat, Noppol, Sukanya Sereenonchai, Winai Chaowiwat, Can Wang, and Ryusuke Hatano. 2022. "Carbon, Nitrogen and Water Footprints of Organic Rice and Conventional Rice Production over 4 Years of Cultivation: A Case Study in the Lower North of Thailand" Agronomy 12, no. 2: 380. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12020380

APA Style

Arunrat, N., Sereenonchai, S., Chaowiwat, W., Wang, C., & Hatano, R. (2022). Carbon, Nitrogen and Water Footprints of Organic Rice and Conventional Rice Production over 4 Years of Cultivation: A Case Study in the Lower North of Thailand. Agronomy, 12(2), 380. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12020380

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