Girdling Effects on Fruit Maturity, Kernel Quality, and Nutritional Value of Walnuts (Juglans regia L.) alongside the Effects on Leaf Physiological Characteristics
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Plant Material
2.2. Leaf photosynthetic Variables
2.3. Maturity Stage
2.4. Weight of Nut and Color, Moisture, and Oil Percentage in Kernels
2.5. Extraction of Antioxidants
2.6. Total Phenolic Compounds (TP), Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC) by FRAP and DDPH Methods
2.7. Extraction and Determination of Soluble Sugars (Sucrose, Glucose, Fructose)
2.8. Extraction of Oil for Quality Estimation and Fatty Acid Profile
2.9. Free Fatty Acid Content and Peroxide Value
2.10. Fatty Acid Analysis
2.11. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Girdling Effect on Maturity Stage
3.2. Nut and Kernel Characteristics
3.3. Oil Content in Kernel, Free Fatty Acids (FFA) and Peroxide Value (PV) in Oil, and Total Phenolics (TP) and Total Antioxidant Capacity (FRAP, DPPH) in Kernels
3.4. Oil Composition
3.5. Soluble Sugars (Sols)
3.6. Photosynthesis
4. Discussion
4.1. Fruit Maturation
4.2. Quality Characteristics Based on Consumer-Perception
4.3. Nutritional Value—Fatty Acids and Total Antioxidants
4.4. Leaf Photosynthesis and Soluble Sugars (Sols) in Leaves and Kernels
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Harvest 1 | Treatment | Nut Weight (g) | Kernel (g) | Kernel to Nut % (w/w) | Kernel Moisture % (w/w) | L* | ho | C* |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st | Control | - | 4.76 ± 0.25 d | - | 41.31 ± 1.89 a | 65.78 ± 0.74 a | 84.29 ± 0.39 ab | 29.98 ± 0.77 b |
Girdling | - | 5.62 ± 0.27 c | - | 38.62 ± 1.61 ab | 64.73 ± 0.75 ab | 84.81 ± 0.93 a | 31.07 ± 0.86 ab | |
2nd | Control | 13.21 ± 0.41 a2 | 6.24 ± 0.22 b | 47.20 ± 0.35 b | 36.01 ± 1.20 bc | 63.89 ± 0.96 ab | 83.45 ± 0.36 b | 32.62 ± 0.77 a |
Girdling | 13.95 ± 0.64 a | 7.20 ± 0.24 a | 51.70 ± 3.32 a | 34.37 ± 1.72 c | 62.68 ± 1.25 b | 83.03 ± 0.54 b | 32.39 ± 0.54 a | |
Pg 3 | NS | *** | * | * | * | NS | NS | |
Ph | - | *** | - | *** | ** | *** | *** | |
Pg×h | - | NS | - | NS | NS | NS | NS |
Harvest 1 | Treatment | Palmitic C16:0 | Linoleic C18:2 n-9,12 |
---|---|---|---|
1st | Control | 10.41 ± 0.46 a2 | 49.52 ± 1.15 b |
Girdling | 9.75 ± 0.64 a | 49.34 ± 1.19 b | |
2nd | Control | 8.08 ± 0.36 b | 50.57 ± 0.21 ab |
Girdling | 8.02 ± 0.21 b | 52.32 ± 0.85 a | |
Pg3 | NS | NS | |
Ph | *** | ** | |
Pg×h | NS | NS |
Harvest 1 | Treatment | TFA TFA | SFA Cv:0 | ΤUFA | MUFA Cv:1 | PUFA Cv:n (n > 1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st | Control | 98.05 ± 0.98 a2 | 13.91 ± 0.54 a | 84.14 ± 1.43 b | 20.11 ± 0.64 a | 64.03 ± 0.88 b |
Girdling | 97.55 ± 0.86 a | 13.16 ± 0.82 a | 84.39 ± 1.60 b | 20.41 ± 0.37 a | 63.97 ± 1.28 b | |
2nd | Control | 97.97 ± 0.97 a | 11.46 ± 0.42 b | 86.50 ± 1.03 ab | 20.75 ± 0.40 a | 65.76 ± 0.64 ab |
Girdling | 99.11 ± 1.30 a | 11.37 ± 0.32 b | 87.74 ± 1.35 a | 20.52 ± 1.92 a | 67.21 ± 0.44 a | |
Pg3 | NS | NS | NS | NS | NS | |
Ph | NS | *** | ** | NS | *** | |
Pg×h | NS | NS | NS | NS | NS |
Harvest 1 | Treatment | Pn (μmol m−2 s−1) | gs (mol m −2 s−1) | Ci (μmol mol air−1) | E Rate (mmol m −2 s−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st | Control | 17.59 ± 3.28 a2 | 239.63 ± 75.34 a | 149.38 ± 25.65 b | 3.93 ± 0.71 a |
Girdling | 16.35 ± 2.37 a | 225.38 ± 62.43 a | 150.00 ± 35.27 b | 3.86 ± 0.68 a | |
2nd | Control | 5.75 ± 1.22 b | 132.00 ± 43.15 b | 219.25 ± 41.71 a | 2.67 ± 0.62 b |
Girdling | 5.16 ± 0.91 b | 140.75 ± 52.58 b | 227.88 ± 52.22 a | 3.20 ± 0.89 b | |
Pg3 | NS | NS | NS | NS | |
Ph | *** | *** | *** | *** | |
Pg×h | NS | NS | NS | NS |
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Christopoulos, M.V.; Kafkaletou, M.; Karantzi, A.D.; Tsantili, E. Girdling Effects on Fruit Maturity, Kernel Quality, and Nutritional Value of Walnuts (Juglans regia L.) alongside the Effects on Leaf Physiological Characteristics. Agronomy 2021, 11, 200. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11020200
Christopoulos MV, Kafkaletou M, Karantzi AD, Tsantili E. Girdling Effects on Fruit Maturity, Kernel Quality, and Nutritional Value of Walnuts (Juglans regia L.) alongside the Effects on Leaf Physiological Characteristics. Agronomy. 2021; 11(2):200. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11020200
Chicago/Turabian StyleChristopoulos, Miltiadis V., Mina Kafkaletou, Athanasia D. Karantzi, and Eleni Tsantili. 2021. "Girdling Effects on Fruit Maturity, Kernel Quality, and Nutritional Value of Walnuts (Juglans regia L.) alongside the Effects on Leaf Physiological Characteristics" Agronomy 11, no. 2: 200. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11020200