Utilizing Virtual Worlds for Training Professionals: The Case of Soft Skills Training of Smart City Engineers and Technicians

Abstract

The paper explores virtual worlds as an innovative training platform for upskilling and reskilling smart city professionals, comprising technicians and engineers. Focusing on developing soft skills, the study presents findings from the pilot of a virtual training which was part of a comprehensive tech skills program that also included transversal skills, namely soft, entrepreneurial and green skills. Moreover, the paper describes the methodological approach adapted for the design and the use of the soft skills’ virtual world during the online multi-user sessions, and depicts the technical infrastructure used for its implementation. The virtual world was assessed with a mixed-methods approach, combining a specially designed evaluation questionnaire completed by 27 trainees with semi-structured interviews conducted with instructors. Quantitative data were analyzed to assess satisfaction, perceived effectiveness, and the relationship between curriculum design, support, and instructional quality. Qualitative feedback provided complementary insights into learner experiences and implementation challenges. Findings indicate high levels of learner satisfaction, particularly regarding instructor expertise, curriculum organization, and overall engagement. Statistical analysis revealed strong correlations between course structure and perceived training quality, while prior familiarity with virtual environments showed no significant impact on outcomes. Participants appreciated the flexibility, interactivity, and team-based nature of the training, despite minor technical issues. This research demonstrates the viability of VWs for soft skills development in technical professions, highlighting their value as an inclusive, scalable, and experiential training solution. Its novelty lies in applying immersive technology specifically to smart city training, a field where such applications remain underexplored. The findings support the integration of virtual environments into professional development strategies and inform best practices for future implementations.

1. Introduction

Over the past decade, technological advancements have significantly influenced education, introducing innovative tools and methods that engage students more effectively and enhance the efficiency of the learning processes. Virtual reality (VR) constitutes a promising educational technology with great potential in the educational domain. Virtual reality platforms offer students and teachers a wide range of training opportunities and have been applied across various complex fields and disciplines. These systems can significantly support teachers in their instructional methods while primarily benefiting students by facilitating learning, knowledge acquisition, and comprehension [1]. Furthermore, VR has the capacity to enrich the student learning experience, making educational processes more engaging, effective, and impactful. VR is increasingly integrated into various educational areas and allows learners to study, practice, and construct their own knowledge [2]. These environments can greatly increase the quality of learning and provide new possibilities [3]. Three-dimensional Virtual Worlds (VWs) offer experiences that were previously inaccessible and support various educational processes and training activities [4]. The capabilities of VWs offer novel opportunities to design curricula and deliver lessons in innovative ways [5,6], refine the learning experience of students, open new frontiers for educational advancement [7], and they have been used to provide efficient learning procedures in various domains [8,9,10,11].

The metaverse is closely linked to VWs and offers exciting new opportunities for education and training [12]. The metaverse refers to a shared digital space that combines physical and virtual realities, allowing people to interact with each other and digital objects in real time [13]. It brings together technologies like virtual reality, augmented reality, and artificial intelligence to create immersive, interactive environments. The concept of the metaverse is gaining growing attention as a space where virtual and physical worlds come together in real time. According to the European Commission, VWs are persistent, immersive environments built with technologies like 3D graphics and extended reality, supporting activities such as learning, designing, collaboration, and social interaction [14]. The metaverse is seen as a key area for Europe’s future digital growth and in the context of training and upskilling, the metaverse can provide safe, engaging spaces where learners can practice new skills, work together on tasks, and explore complex scenarios that are difficult to recreate in the real world.

Today’s cities are changing fast, using new digital tools and green technologies to improve how they work and serve people. For this reason, it is very important that smart city workers, especially technicians and engineers, have strong digital, soft and green skills [15]. These skills help them work with smart systems, data, and new technologies, while green skills help them support cleaner, more sustainable solutions for the environment. Many workers need reskilling to learn completely new skills for these areas, and others need upskilling to improve the skills they already have [16]. Without this training, they risk falling behind as the demands of smart cities grow. It is also important that reskilling and upskilling efforts are inclusive and open to everyone. All workers, no matter their background, age, gender, or past experience, should have the chance to learn and grow. This helps make sure that no one is left out of the benefits of the green and digital transitions. By offering fair learning opportunities, cities can build a stronger, more diverse workforce that is ready to meet future challenges [17]. In the end, investing in these skills is not only good for individual workers but also helps cities become smarter, fairer, and more sustainable for all.

This paper examines how 3D VWs can be used as a new way to train and improve the skills of smart city workers, including technicians and engineers. The study shares results from the EU-funded SMACITE project, where virtual environments were tested as part of a larger training program that also covered entrepreneurial and green skills. The paper explains how the soft skills VW was designed and used during online group sessions. It also describes the technical tools used to set it up. The VW was evaluated by both the trainees and the trainers through a special questionnaire and interviews. The results show that immersive training can help improve worker skills but also reveal some challenges.

The rest of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 surveys the literature and presents related work. Section 3 presents the methods and the materials of the work. Section 4 presents the experimental results, and finally, Section 5 concludes the work.

2. Related Work

In the related scientific literature, VWs have been designed and used in various domains. In the work presented in [18], authors examined the impact of immersive and gamified learning activities on students’ motivation, engagement, and acquisition of entrepreneurial skills. The findings revealed that the integration of game-based learning and virtual reality elements significantly improved students’ ability to understand and apply entrepreneurial concepts in realistic business scenarios. Additionally, students reported increased motivation and a more positive attitude toward entrepreneurship education and the study highlights the great potential of immersive technologies in gaining skills and competencies.

In the work presented in [19], authors study the role of VR technology in education. The study follows a quasi-experimental approach which revealed that students who participated in VR-based entrepreneurship training exhibited higher EI scores compared to those who received traditional teacher-centered instruction. These results show the broader integration of VR technologies in education to enhance student engagement, experiential learning, and real-world application of entrepreneurial concepts.

In the work presented in [20], authors study the potential of Virtual Reality in environmental education and sustainable behavior. Authors focus on green energy and sustainable practices and examine how immersive technologies can enhance environmental awareness and inspire action. The study highlights how VR and AR create engaging, hands-on learning experiences that bridge the gap between theory and practice. The findings reveal that these tools educate and also empower individuals to adopt more sustainable lifestyles. The study provides valuable insights for educators, policymakers, and scholars, emphasizing the crucial role of immersive technologies in shaping a more sustainable and environmentally conscious society.

In the work presented in [21], authors study the use of virtual reality and gamification in sustainability education and how it can address the growing need for innovative methods to promote green innovation and carbon neutrality. The study presents an AR-based mobile application designed to enhance student engagement through simulation games, interactive animations, and digital achievement badges. The application integrates gamification elements and aims to improve learners’ understanding of sustainability concepts. The study evaluates the effectiveness of this approach through pre- and post-surveys, examining its impact on students’ learning experiences and knowledge acquisition in sustainable development.

The scoping review of Jiang et al. [22] explored the use of virtual reality (VR) in undergraduate medical education, with a focus on its potential for developing both clinical and soft skills. The study highlighted how VR can support immersive learning environments that foster communication, empathy, and decision making—core components of soft skills. While the findings show promise, the authors emphasize the need for further research to evaluate the long-term impact of VR-based soft skills training and its integration into medical education programs.

In more recent research, Dubiel et al. [23] conducted a comprehensive literature review of 33 studies on virtual reality (VR)-based soft skills training in professional education. Their analysis identified four key themes: the specific soft skills targeted by VR interventions, the characteristics of the VR technologies employed, the educational approaches utilized, and the methods used to evaluate training effectiveness. The study found that VR is predominantly applied to enhance communication, teamwork, and self-efficacy skills. Two primary VR technologies were identified: spatial 3D graphics, which create interactive environments for practicing scenarios like negotiations, and 360-degree video, which offers panoramic recordings for observational learning. The authors emphasized the need for further research to assess the long-term impact of VR-based soft skills training and to explore its application across diverse professional contexts.

Bartolotta et al. in [24] explored the effectiveness of immersive technologies in soft skills training within the metaverse. In a quasi-experimental study, 45 employees were assigned to either a non-immersive (desktop) or immersive (VR headset) training on empathic communication, both based on experiential learning principles. While both groups reported high levels of communication competence and satisfaction, no significant differences emerged between them—despite higher embodiment and presence in the VR group. These findings suggest that immersion alone may not be the decisive factor in creating effective learning experiences.

In the work presented in [25], authors present an autonomous framework for deploying building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPVs) using advanced 3D modeling and economic assessment tools. The study integrates an open-source UAV platform for data collection, a deep learning-based multi-view stereo network for point cloud reconstruction, and a Grasshopper plugin for life cycle cost analysis to evaluate BIPV strategies. The framework is applied in a high-density urban setting and supports informed decision making by offering both profit-maximizing and energy-optimizing deployment strategies. This approach highlights how digital tools and autonomous methods can enhance sustainability efforts in urban environments and inform the design of smart, low-carbon cities.

Table 1. Summary of related works on virtual reality and virtual worlds in education and training.

Study	Study Objectives	Methodologies	Target Audiences	Outcomes
[18]	Examine impact of immersive and gamified learning on entrepreneurial skills.	Experimental study with game-based VR learning.	Students learning entrepreneurship.	Improved entrepreneurial understanding, higher motivation, positive attitudes.
[19]	Study role of VR in entrepreneurship education and its effect on emotional intelligence (EI).	Quasi-experimental approach comparing VR and traditional instruction.	Students in entrepreneurship training programs.	Higher EI scores in VR group, enhanced engagement and experiential learning.
[20]	Explore VR in environmental education and its influence on sustainable behavior.	Experimental study on VR/AR impact on environmental awareness.	Learners in environmental education programs.	Increased environmental awareness, empowered sustainable behavior.
[21]	Investigate AR-based gamified app to promote green innovation and sustainability learning.	Design and evaluation of AR mobile app using pre- and post-surveys.	Students engaging in sustainability and green innovation learning.	Improved sustainability knowledge, enhanced engagement via gamification.
[22]	Scoping review on VR use for clinical and soft skills development in medical education.	Scoping review of VR applications in medical education.	Undergraduate medical students.	Promising VR potential for soft skills, need for more research on long-term impact.
[23]	Literature review on VR-based soft skills training in professional education.	Literature review of 33 VR-based soft skills training studies.	Professionals undergoing soft skills training.	VR improves communication, teamwork, self-efficacy; need for further research.
[24]	Test effectiveness of immersive vs. non-immersive soft skills training in metaverse.	Quasi-experimental study comparing VR headset vs. desktop training.	Employees receiving empathic communication training.	High competence and satisfaction in both groups; immersion alone not decisive.
[25]	Develop autonomous framework for BIPV deployment using digital tools and cost analysis.	UAV data collection, deep learning-based 3D modeling, Grasshopper life cycle cost analysis.	Urban building designers, sustainability planners.	Effective BIPV deployment strategies supporting profit maximization and energy optimization for smart, low-carbon cities.

presents a summary of works on virtual words in education and training.

From the above, it is evident that the domain of using VW environments for developing soft skills has gathered significant research attention in recent years, an expected observation as technology advances and such environments become more accessible to wider user populations and the supported immersion improves significantly. This article describes the VWs developed for horizontal skills training of smart city engineers and technicians. The VWs were developed and piloted in the framework of the Erasmus+ project (https://smacite.eu/, accessed 12 May 2025). The project aimed to address the skills gap of smart cities technicians and engineers, by designing and testing a vocational education and training program based on a multi-disciplinary curriculum combining digital skills on smart city-enabling technologies, with horizontal skills, namely soft, entrepreneurship and green skills [26]. The training was delivered using current technology-enabled learning tools: a MOOC for the technical competences and VWs for the non-technical competences. Apart from developing textual and video content for the asynchronous soft skills training, trainees also used synchronous sessions in a VW to practice interactive use and assessment of the newly acquired soft, entrepreneurial and green skills. In this article, the focus is set on soft skills training. Soft skills have gained significant attention and acceptance the recent years as skills that may prove even more crucial than technical skills in the work environment and everyday practice across most professional domains. In the following sections, we discuss the educational approach adapted to deliver soft skills training through VW synchronous sessions, the technical infrastructure used and the assessment of the training by both trainees and trainers involved.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Educational Approach

The training course on soft skills was designed to promote interaction among all stakeholders, such as learners and the trainer, as well as to enhance the learners’ engagement. For this to be achieved, a mix of key educational theories were employed to constitute the main educational approach, such as the theory of constructivism, experiential learning, active learning, transformative learning combined with the principles of adult education as well as those of online learning.

More specifically, the constructivism theory is based on the axioms that “learning is a constructive activity that the learners themselves have to carry out” while “the task of the educator is not to dispense knowledge but to provide students with incentives and opportunities to build it up” [27]. Key elements of this theory concern the fact that the learners create their own reality based on their beliefs, way of thinking, and past experiences, whilst their existing knowledge and ideas have a profound role in how training explores and addresses the pre-existing knowledge and ideas, thus building new knowledge upon them.

Having this as a starting point, the educational approach is further enriched with other learning theories which are reflected in multiple levels, beginning from the design of the learning content, the assessment strategy to be followed to the training scenarios provided to the trainer as well as the design of the actual scenery of the VW. The focus is on active learning and building through experiences that are learner-centered. Given that VW educational settings constitute by default a rich and interactive context, learners can construct their own understanding of soft skills, thus promoting their active engagement [28].

Moreover, numerous interactive activities, such as role-playing, group discussions, and case studies are deployed to promote collaboration, active engagement and commitment to the learning process. In general, collaboration is promoted through the VW’s built-in collaborative features, allowing learners to learn from each other, share insights, and develop their interpersonal skills. Further, the reflective questions incorporated throughout the course aim to promote transformative learning. Transformative learning encourages learners to critically examine their existing beliefs, values, and perspectives, challenging them to explore new ideas, embrace diverse viewpoints, and broaden their understanding on the specific topic [29].

3.1.1. The Learning Content and the Design of the Educational Environment

The course focuses on the cultivation of specific soft skills by putting emphasis on supporting learners in fully understanding the most demanding aspects of those skills. It should be noted that the selected soft skills derive from the Non-Cognitive Skills Framework (NCSF) that was developed under the Skills Match DG CONNECT project [30], since neither ESCO nor e-CF include explicit soft skills or non-cognitive skills (NCSs) for occupations. Nonetheless, they constitute essential factors in the success of educational performance, employability, income and professional development or career [31]. More specifically, the skills addressed during this training through VWs concerned the following:

• Hard skills vs. soft skills;
• Effective communication and active listening;
• Teamwork and collaboration;
• Critical thinking and decision making;
• Leadership and management;
• Managing through change.

In addition, the design of the environment of the VW was in full alignment with the promotion of the soft skills. To enhance learner engagement and emphasize the broad applicability of the selected soft skills, the training utilized a virtual forest environment. Specific props within this unconventional setting, such as signs, a bush, a waterfall, a campfire, and a huge rock, served as metaphorical representations of key concepts enhancing the learning experience in accordance with the related learning objectives set for the users, described as follows:

• To realize the level to which soft skills are important contributions to their professional and personal development in general.
• To identify the importance of cultivating their interpersonal communication skills.
• To recognize the importance of teamwork and collaboration for achieving better results/reaching the goals set within the team.
• To cultivate their critical thinking skills, enhancing their creativity as well, by pushing them to think out of the box in order to overcome possible obstacles.
• To learn how to motivate others and act with empathy, recognizing the significance of EQ.
• To learn how to be adaptive, flexible and resilient to changes.

3.1.2. The Assessment Strategy

Assessment constitutes a fundamental part of the design process of every training course. In order to guide effective, authentic and relevant assessment strategies for adult education training programs, the five key principles of learning were taken into account [32]:

• The learning should derive from various learning sources, in the sense that learning occurs from interaction with a wide variety of informal and formal knowledge sources.
• The learning should engage the whole person, contributing to the person’s development through the reinforcement of the person’s cognitive, conative, and affective domains of learning.
• The learning should be promoted (along with self-direction) through feedback, which in turn leads to the learner’s active involvement not only in learning but also in the assessment processes, assisting the learning process.
• The learning should occur in context, which in turn leads to having an impact on the broader environment of learners, like work, family, and community.
• The learning should deploy experiences that accommodate different learning styles that are founded upon different life experiences and educational backgrounds.

Furthermore, the design of the assessment activities established specific quality criteria that will ensure the effectiveness and the efficiency of the assessment process, such as [33,34,35]:

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Validity, involving the precision of an assessment, focusing on whether it appropriately serves its intended purpose and measures the designated learning outcomes.

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Transparency, requiring that tasks are clear, comprehensible, and manageable for those who need to complete them.

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Reliability, implying that the assessment tool or method consistently gauges a learner’s performance, yielding the same results upon repetition.

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Fairness, ensuring that all learners have equal opportunities to showcase the knowledge, skills, and competencies being evaluated.

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Feasibility, assessing whether the designed assessment can be practically administered.

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Authenticity, ensuring that the assessment aligns with learners’ knowledge, skills, and competencies, allowing performance evaluation in real-world contexts.

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Effectivity, indicating that the assessment method should stimulate the desired learning behaviors among learners.

The assessment strategy was completed by adopting the assessment “for learning” instead of the one of “of learning”, with the aim to enable students, through effective feedback, to fully understand their own learning and the goals they are aiming for [36], placing themselves and the learning in the center for the assessment as an instructional practice [37]. For example, during role-playing exercises, the trainer would provide immediate feedback on participants’ communication skills, specifically focusing on active listening techniques and conflict resolution strategies. In addition, after completing case studies, participants were encouraged to engage in self-reflection, by answering a set of guided questions to assess their own performance. These questions prompted them to consider their strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvements. Finally, peer feedback was incorporated into group discussions, allowing participants to provide constructive criticism to each other. This multifaceted approach to feedback ensured that learners received timely and relevant information to guide their learning.

For assessing the levels of acquisition of knowledge, skills and competences of the learners, a number of techniques were employed, such as case studies, group discussions, practical activities and role playing. These activities were carefully selected to align with the learning outcomes, reflecting a constructive alignment approach, ensuring that learners are assessed on what they are taught and expected to achieve [38]. Critical to this point was the provision of direct feedback to the learners by the trainer in each one of the abovementioned activities.

3.1.3. The Training Scenarios

The training course was equivalent to EQF level 4 based on the needs of future smart cities professionals, namely technicians and engineers, respectively. Having this taken into account, along with the fact that participants from both target groups would attend the training, the design team decided to provide training that referred to soft skills and topics that meet the needs of both target groups. In general, the training was split into two sessions, each of which had a duration of two hours. Since the training was piloted for the first time, the trainer was provided with specific scenarios that described the training process along with the location in which the delivery of each one of the selected soft skills would take place.

Drawing on constructivist learning principles, these training scenarios aim to foster the development of learners’ conceptual structures through reflection and abstraction. In line with von Glasersfeld’s emphasis on sensory-motor actions and conceptual operations, the scenarios integrate elements such as a gentle breeze and bird sounds to enhance the learner’s experience and promote knowledge construction [39].

A Train the Trainer session was carried out for the trainers, so as to ensure that they were fully aligned with the proposed methodology adopted in the online training through VWs, the educational goals of this training and how they should be achieved. Moreover, both the learners and the trainer were provided with a demo prior to the training in order to familiarize themselves with the VW and how to navigate effectively within it.

The instructions provided to the trainer prior the training were as follows:

Session A

Theme 1: Introduction to Soft Skills

Scene description: A big sign that indicates the entrance to the forest, where the following question is written: “Do you know why it is important to cultivate your soft skills?” that introduces the learners to the topic.

The learning objective that addresses this topic is for students “to realize the level to which soft skills are important contributing to their professional and personal development in general (O1)”. Moreover, it is connected with the following Learning Outcomes:

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In terms of knowledge, the learners will explain the importance of soft skills for their professional and personal development.

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In terms of skills, the learners will be able to discern hard from soft skills and identify pathways for their development.

Introduction of the trainer and the course. Trainees are asked to present themselves.

Breaking the ice question about soft skills. “Do you know why it is important to cultivate your soft skills?”

Based on this question, students are encouraged to reflect about the term soft skills, whether they have heard it or not and what they think it means. Then, the trainer will outline the importance of the soft skills as an essential part of students’ professional and personal development.

• A ppt #1 is presented about the differences between soft and hard skills

Trainer: Can you please name some examples of soft skills and hard skills based on your working experience? After participants provide examples, the trainer will encourage learners to watch a video about soft skills and their importance.

Trainer: After the completion of the video, he/she asks the trainees to provide examples of which of the above mentioned soft skills are deemed more necessary for their work than others and why.

Theme2: Effective communication and Active listening

Scene description: Students are in clean field full of grass, low bushes and flowers. A big bush full of tiny flowers but no higher than a meter will be the main prop of the scene, while the sound of a breeze, birds and bugs is prominent in a sense that can lead to minor distractions.

The learning objective that addresses this topic is for students “to identify the importance of cultivating their interpersonal communication skills (O2)”,which is also connected to the following measurable Learning Outcomes:

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In terms of knowledge, the learners will identify the various forms of communication and principles of effective communication and negotiation.

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In terms of skills, the learners will be able to communicate with clarity and conviction and tailor their communication strategy according to the specificities of each context.

Introduction to the topic of effective communication and active listening.

Breaking the ice question: What do you think active listening is and why is it important for communicating effectively with others?

• Presentation of PPT#2 Active listening

At the end of the ppt, the trainer assigns a role-playing activity to learners (Activity #1).

“One of the learners is student A and another one is student B.

Student A (speaker) will share something with student B related to his/her job that is passionate about

Student B (listener) will do everything impossible to ignore the speaker.

Take 90 s to do so

What were the feelings of both students?

Then change the roles, student C will be the speaker and Student D will be the listener.

The listener should listen to the story of the speaker like it is the most wonderful amazing thing he/she have ever heard in his/her job

Take 90 s to do so What are your thoughts and feelings at the second time?”

Trainer: Based on this activity, the trainer asks the learners what kind of communication barriers they faced during the activity.

Then, they explain that usually when people speak there are a number of barriers that prevent effective communication, such as the following:

• PPT#3 Barriers to effective communication

Trainer: Now that we are living in multicultural communities, can you identify another category of communication barriers related to it?

• PPT#4 intercultural communication is presented

Group discussion about the parameters that we should have in mind if we want to discuss effectively with others.

• Video #2: How to improve our communication skills is presented

Theme 3: Teamwork and Collaboration

Scene description: Students are on a path where a small sign with directions to different points of the forest are indicated (in the form of wooden arrows). This part needs good collaboration and conflict resolution in order to decide which path the team should take.

The learning objective that addresses this topic is for students “to recognize the importance of teamwork and collaboration for achieving better results/reaching the goals set within the team (O3)”, which is also connected to the following measurable Learning Outcomes:

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In terms of knowledge, the learners will present the basic principles and advantages of collaboration and teamwork.

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In terms of skills, the learners will be able to create effective, flexible and resilient teams by motivating the team members and handling common conflicts that arise within teams.

Breaking the ice question: Have you ever worked in teams? What was your experience? Was it easy for you to collaborate with others?

• Presentation of PPT#5 teamwork and collaboration

Trainer: Can you think of any challenges when working in teams?

• Presentation of PPT#6 Conflict resolution

Group discussion: Remember a time when you were in the middle of a conflict at work. How did the manager behave? What were the steps that he undertook so as to resolve the situation? Was it effective? If not, what should he/she have done differently? Please elaborate.

Session B

Theme 1: Critical Thinking and Decision Making

Scene description: There is a path in the forest that is blocked by a huge rock but has different paths surrounding it. This scene illustrates the critical decisions that students are called upon to make in every aspect of their lives, providing ways to reach these decisions more effectively and efficiently.

The learning objective that addresses this topic is for students “to cultivate their critical thinking skills enhancing their creativity as well, by pushing them to think out of the box in order to overcome possible obstacles (O4)”, which is also connected to the following measurable Learning Outcomes:

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In terms of knowledge, the learners will recognize principles, phases and tools of decision making and creative problem-solving procedures.

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In terms of skills, the learners will be able to gather information about a problem, identify and analyze problems and use techniques in order to come up with a decision.

Breaking the ice question about soft skills. “Can you briefly describe how we come to a decision? What kind of soft skill we use in this case?”

There is a presentation about decision making, design thinking and the rational design thinking process.

• Presentation of PPT#1 Design Thinking

After the presentation, the trainer encourages the learners to proceed with an activity (Activity #1 The decision-making process) where they try to come to a decision on two different topics. In this way, the trainer shows participants that the rational decision-making model has some steps to be followed, and these steps depend on the severity of the decision to be made.

“Try to apply the rational decision-making process in the cases of:

(a) buying new software for measuring the GSG emissions in your smart city and

(b) choosing what to eat for lunch.

How did you apply the process in each case?

Did you have to follow all the steps in both of them?”

After the activity, the trainer encourages learners to watch the following video about creative decision-making processes.

• Video #1 creative problem solving

Theme 2: Leadership and Management

Scene description: The trainer leads the students to the camp, where there is a tent and a fire, representing the warmth and guiding light of effective leadership, thus illustrating how leaders inspire and support their teams toward success.

The learning objective that addresses this topic is for students “to learn how to motivate others, act with empathy recognizing the significance of EQ (O5)”, which is also connected to the following measurable Learning Outcomes:

-

In terms of knowledge, the learners will differentiate between management and leadership and the importance of EQ and motivation.

-

In terms of skills, the learners will be able to provide examples of how to build and sustain trustful relationships with colleagues and supervisors through responsible leadership.

The trainer provides details of the role of leadership and its importance in motivating people, uniting them for the completion of common goals and tasks that are in alignment with the organization’s mission and vision. Special attention will be given to Emotional Intelligence factor and how it can affect the relationships between business leaders and their subordinates.

Then, students will be asked to reflect on an example retrieved from their working environment where they should describe the profile of the leader/manager and whether this leadership style brought negative and/or positive results to the motivation and inspiration of employees. In the case of negative examples, students will have to indicate what should be changed in order to reverse this situation in terms of leadership.

• PPT # 2 difference between leader and manager

Then, the trainer encourages participants to watch a video that clarifies what a manager and what a leader do under given circumstances.

• Video #2 Leaders or managers

Then, the trainer asks the learners if they are aware of the term EQ and how important it is for leaders to have it. After a brief discussion on the term, the trainer presents a presentation about leadership and Emotional Intelligence (EQ).

• PPT#3 leadership and EQ

After the ppt, the trainer presents an activity (Group Activity #2) where learners should think about team leaders they had with EQ or without it and how it affected the success of the team/project/work, etc.

“Think of two managers/leaders/supervisors in your working environment, who represent two different “schools of leadership”. The first one represents a leader with high levels of EQ and the second one, a strong personality with high levels of IQ but clearly perceived low levels of EQ.

What were the relationships of each one with their subordinates and/or various key stakeholders? What was the climate in the working environment? Were their workers motivated and committed? After answering the abovementioned questions, please reflect the extent to which EQ or its absence in leadership signifies a Smart cities’ project success.”

To sum up about leadership, the trainer asks learners what characteristics and skills they believe that effective leaders should possess.

• PPT#4 key characteristics of effective leaders

Theme 3: Managing Through Change

Scene description: The calm river and the waterfall illustrate the changes in life that may occur at any moment.

The learning objective that addresses this topic is for students “to learn how to be adaptive, flexible and resilient to changes (O6)”, which is also connected to the following measurable Learning Outcomes:

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In terms of knowledge, the learners will describe the factors that lead to changes and the skills that need to be developed to successfully tackle them.

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In terms of skills, the learners will be able to provide an example of changes occurring in their professional life and prepare a list with actions undertaken that will help them to adapt to the aforementioned changes.

Trainer: “What do you think is change? How do you see change? What factors can lead to change? Please provide examples.”

• PPT # 5 Internal and External Factors that lead to Change

Then, the trainer asks the learners if they know the difference between change and innovation, as well as the prerequisites for a change to become an innovation (the need to know the past and the present).

• Video#3 The difference between innovation and change

Group discussion: Are you faced with changes in your professional life? Please provide examples.

Then, the trainer asks the learners to watch the video with tips on how they can anticipate changes at work.

• Video #4 “How to survive change at work”

Finally, the trainer provides a summary of those tips and how they can be implemented by students in their work.

The virtual world training sessions serve as a supplementary, immersive, and interactive component of the broader “Soft Skills” course, designed to enhance the learners’ educational experience. This experiential learning environment facilitates immediate feedback from both the trainer and peers. While integral to the course, these sessions are complemented by asynchronous online learning modules and formal certification exams through an e-proctoring platform to comprehensively assess knowledge acquisition.

Finally, for capturing the impact not only of the training sessions through the Virtual Worlds but also of the whole course on Soft Skills, which is available through a MOOC, on their professional and personal life and/or work, a follow-up questionnaire has been developed. The distribution of the questionnaire is foreseen to be performed six months and one year after the end of the project. These data are not yet available.

3.2. The VW Platform Design and Implementation

3.2.1. VW Technologies

In the software and technology domain, there are many approaches and platforms that are available to design and develop VW environments. In the following subsections, the main technological approaches are examined and presented in the need analysis performed in the context of the project.

One popular platform that offers the ability to create VWs is the Open Simulator or OPENSIM platform (http://opensimulator.org/, accessed on 8 April 2025). Open Simulator is an open-source multi-platform multi-user 3D application server. It can be used to create a virtual environment (or world) which can be accessed through a variety of clients, on multiple protocols. Opensim can empower learners—through their avatars—to move around the areas of the VW, to communicate with one another using text, voice and gesture animations and to interact with items.

OpenSim allows developers to customize VWs to meet specific needs by providing access to its source code. It supports a wide range of operating systems and devices, including desktops, laptops, and VR systems, enabling broad accessibility. OpenSimulator features interoperability through the Open Grid Protocol, which facilitates seamless connections between different virtual environments. Its modular design supports custom scripts, assets, and functionalities, enabling dynamic interactivity. The platform also allows for cost-effective hosting on local servers or cloud platforms, making it an economical alternative to commercial solutions. It supports rich media integration, allowing images, videos, and interactive objects to enhance user experiences.

Inside the VW, trainers and trainees can communicate with instant messages. It is possible for teachers to create groups and invite their students to create working groups. OpenSim can also embed suitable communication software such as the FreeSWITCH server to allow voice communication. This communication can be in the form of the trainer speaking and being heard by any avatars that are near him, or in the form of private calls with selected avatars or groups in the world.

Second Life (http://secondlife.com, accessed on 8 April 2025) is a widely recognized VW platform launched by Linden Lab in 2003. It offers an immersive, user-generated 3D environment where individuals can create, explore, and interact. Unlike traditional games, Second Life focuses on fostering creativity, social interaction, and collaborative experiences rather than predefined goals or gameplay mechanics. Users, referred to as “residents,” can customize their avatars, construct virtual objects and environments, and engage in various activities, including social gatherings, business meetings, educational sessions, and cultural events. The platform provides a robust suite of tools for content creation, enabling users to build and script interactive objects, design landscapes, and even develop virtual businesses. Its in-world economy, powered by the virtual currency Linden Dollar, facilitates trade and commerce, allowing residents to monetize their creations and services. Second Life also supports multimedia integration, enabling users to incorporate videos, music, and presentations, making it a versatile tool for a wide range of applications. In educational contexts, Second Life has been utilized for virtual classrooms, simulations, and collaborative learning. Institutions and organizations have leveraged its capabilities to create realistic training scenarios, host conferences, and provide experiential learning opportunities. Its ability to simulate real-world environments and situations makes it particularly effective for skill development in areas such as communication, leadership, problem solving, and technical training. Second Life’s social and collaborative features are integral to its appeal. Residents can join communities, participate in events, and interact with users from around the globe. Its persistent world ensures that content remains available across sessions, enabling ongoing projects and long-term engagement.

Unity (https://unity.com/, accessed on 8 April 2025) is a powerful and versatile platform for real-time 3D development, widely used for creating interactive experiences, including games, simulations, and virtual environments. Known for its flexibility and ease of use, Unity provides a robust suite of tools for designing and deploying applications across multiple platforms, including desktops, mobile devices, consoles, and virtual or augmented reality systems.

Its advanced graphics engine supports high-quality rendering, physics simulations, and animation, allowing developers to create visually stunning and realistic environments. Unity’s scripting capabilities, primarily based on C#, enable the development of dynamic interactions and complex behaviors within projects. With its extensive library of assets, plugins, and integration with third-party tools, Unity accelerates the development process and fosters creativity. Additionally, its real-time collaboration features and scalability make it suitable for projects of any size, from small prototypes to large-scale, immersive applications. Unity’s accessibility, combined with its support for cutting-edge technologies like VR and AR, has made it a preferred choice for industries such as gaming, education, architecture, and training simulations.

Table 2. Comparison between different VW technologies.

Characteristic	OpenSim	Unity	Second Life
Type of Platform	Open-source VW platform	Game engine and development platform	Persistent VW platform
Ease of Use	Moderate	Moderate	Moderate
Content Creation	Supports custom scripts, assets, and modular components	Advanced content creation, third-party plugins (asset store) and easy integration with external APIs through NET (C#).	Supports custom scripts, assets, and modular components
Graphic quality	Good graphics quality, low rendering capabilities	Excellent graphics quality with advanced options	Good quality of graphics
Immersive Capabilities	Moderate	High	Moderate
User Collaboration	Excellent	Excellent	Excellent
Multimedia Integration	High	High	High

offers a comparison of the VW technologies mentioned. Unity 3D was selected as the development platform for creating VWs to train smart cities technicians and engineers in soft, entrepreneurial, and green skills. Unity offers a versatile and scalable framework that enables the development of interactive, immersive, and engaging virtual environments. Its flexibility allows for the design of realistic simulations and role-playing scenarios that replicate real-world challenges in smart cities, fostering experiential learning.

Unity supports deployment across multiple platforms, including desktop, mobile, and Virtual Reality (VR) devices, ensuring accessibility for learners with diverse technological capabilities. Advanced 3D rendering, physics engines, and environmental controls enable the development of lifelike scenarios. Learners can engage in problem solving, decision making, and collaboration within realistic virtual settings that mirror real-world smart city challenges. Unity’s C# scripting capabilities allow developers to integrate dynamic interactions, real-time feedback, and adaptive learning pathways, personalizing the training experience to meet individual learner needs. Designed to accommodate projects of varying sizes, Unity supports both small-scale pilots and large-scale rollouts, allowing for the seamless expansion of training modules and scenarios without compromising system performance. Unity facilitates the seamless incorporation of multimedia content, including videos, animations, and assessment tools. This integration ensures that learning materials developed in WP3 are directly embedded within the virtual training environments, creating a cohesive and comprehensive educational experience. Through networked multiplayer functionality, Unity enables learners to participate in collaborative exercises and simulations, fostering teamwork and communication skills—critical competencies for smart cities professionals. Unity’s technological strengths ensured the development of state-of-the-art VWs that blend technical sophistication with pedagogical effectiveness. These engaging and impactful training tools empower participants with the essential skills to thrive in the smart cities sector while advancing green skills training.

3.2.2. The VW Platform

The developed training platform revolves around the setup of three immersive VWs aimed at fostering the soft, entrepreneurial, and green skills of smart cities technicians and engineers. These VWs offer an engaging training environment, integrating 3D infrastructures, avatars, real time voice interaction between participants and on-demand training material loading. The primary design environment used for the development of VWs was version 2021.3.15 of Unity. Blender (https://www.blender.org/, accessed on 9 April 2025), a free and open-source 3D computer graphics software tool, was also used for the design of assets. Bitbucket and Sourcetree were used to keep and manage a common repository among the developers, including a common library of assets. The developing team decided on a couple of guidelines about the assets used in all the different VWs to make sure a common artistic style was followed and set limitations regarding Quality, Level of Detail (LOD), Modularity, Supported Versions and others.

The system is designed to be user-friendly for both trainers and learners. Trainers in a backend system, similar to those used for managing online courses (e.g., Zoom), can organize sessions, add participants in each session, upload training materials, and select the specific VW in which each session will take place. The training sessions take place on the Unity 3D platform, where participants enter the selected 3D VW and interact with other trainees and the trainers in the same instance. The trainer can move through the virtual environment, talk to the participants and load training materials directly into any area of the VW via a panel that can be placed dynamically.

For the real-time synchronization of trainers and trainees in the same VW, Photon is utilized, offering a powerful networking solution tailored for multiplayer games and applications. This ensures a seamless, shared experience where both trainers and trainees can interact with the virtual environment and with each other in real time. Photon enables the synchronization of various elements within the VW, such as player movements, object interactions, and event triggers, so that all participants view and experience the world in unison.

The system architecture (depicted in Figure 1) ensures seamless communication between the Unity 3D VWs and the backend through an API. This communication ensures that the right materials are dynamically loaded into the VW at the appropriate times during a session. By leveraging Unity 3D, Photon networking, and a well-organized backend system, the VW allows for efficient session management and an immersive, interactive learning environment. The 3D VW app contains six different scenes: an initial scene for loading, login screen for participant authentication and role attribution (Figure 2), main menu scene for avatar customization and meeting selection, as well as the three VW scenes. The user interface system that is visible in some scenes is used to design elements like login screens, main menus, and character editors. Unity’s Canvas component is used for creating these interactive overlays.

The scenes show detailed models (avatars, terrain, etc.) and animations for character movement (such as walking, jumping, etc.), which are controlled via Unity’s Animator (Figure 3).

In each of the three VWs, a Navigation Mesh (NavMesh) in Unity helps define areas where the avatars can move. It is essentially a representation of the walkable areas of the scene, and it is used to guide the movement of characters in multiplayer scenarios. Unity’s camera system is used to control the viewpoint for each participant in the VW, while lighting ensures that the environments are visually appealing and realistic. Special attention was given to the projector that presents the training materials to the participants for everyone to be able to see clearly even if other avatars are in front of them. Spawn points play a crucial role in ensuring that avatars appear in areas of the VW that are both accessible and strategically placed to support navigation and interaction between trainers and participants.

The backend behind VWs is a Web application that is used by the trainers to organize training sessions, to grant access to the trainees to these sessions and to upload the materials they will need in each session. The back-end system supports three different roles: (1) Administrators: They create accounts and assign roles to trainers and trainees; (2) Trainers: They create training programs (i.e., for soft skills, green skills and entrepreneurship skills) and schedule meetings to these trainings; (3) Trainees: They can (optionally) access the back-end system, if they want to add their materials to a meeting (e.g., assignments given by the trainer). When trainers log in, they can see the list of the existing training programs by selecting the “Trainings” option on the left menu (Figure 4). Trainers can also add new training programs. To add a new training program as a trainer, select the button “Add a new training program”, identify its title and description and press “Save”.

3.2.3. The VW for Soft Skills

After careful analysis and consultation with the trainers involved in the educational design, the soft skills sessions take place within a forest environment, integrating diverse learning spaces, including open areas, natural settings, and symbolic landscape elements. The forest serves as a dynamic, metaphorical learning landscape where soft skills development unfolds through immersive, experiential learning modules. Six distinct learning units are strategically mapped across the forest’s terrain (Figure 5), with each location symbolizing a specific skill development area. The journey takes place through carefully designed scenes: a grassy field exploring communication, a path with directional signs examining teamwork, a blocked path challenging problem solving, a riverside and waterfall illustrating adaptability (Figure 6), and a campfire scene investigating leadership.

Each natural setting acts as a living metaphor, transforming abstract skill development into a tangible, memorable learning experience. By using the forest as an interactive learning environment, the course creates a dynamic, immersive approach to soft skills development, encouraging deep reflection and practical understanding.

4. Results and Discussion

The VW sessions took place for a period of 6 months in two periods (April–June and September 2024) and participants were VET and HEI students, as well as professionals working in smart city-related domains. Each learner attended two synchronous sessions to complete each module (soft, entrepreneurial and/or green skills). Attendance to the sessions was one of the requirements learners had to fulfill for participating in the formal certification exams of the training program. Learners who participated in the synchronous VW sessions had already successfully attended two technical courses on the MOOC and had also attended the soft skills online training material before being asked to apply what they read in the VW environment. Upon completion of their soft skills training, users were asked to respond to an online questionnaire. The next sections depict the data collected by the trainees’ assessment questionnaire and summarize the comments made by trainers that conducted the sessions.

4.1. Quantitave Assessment

The assessment questionnaire was divided into six thematic sections: demographic information, learning experience, VW experience, instructor and support, learning outcomes and overall feedback. Collected demographics are presented in

Table 3. Sample profile.

		Frequency	Percentage
Gender	Male	22	81.5%
	Female	5	18.5%
	I prefer not to say	-	-
Age	Under 19	14	51.9%
	20–39	10	37.0%
	40–64	3	11.1%
	Over 65	-	-
Professional state	University student	2	7.4%
	Vet student	21	77.8%
	Employed professional	4	14.8%
	Unemployed professional		-
Country	Bulgaria	1	3.7%
	Greece	5	18.5%
	Italy	10	37.0%
	Spain	11	40.7%

and data gathered for the rest of the sections are depicted in the

Table 4. Five-point questions and data collected.

Question	1	2	3	4	5	Mean	SD
How well are the courses of the curriculum organized and structured for effective learning? (1: not at all, 5: fully)		3.7%	14.8%	37%	44.4%	4.22	0.85
Rate the overall quality of online training in the VW (1: very bad, 5: very good)		11.1%	11.1%	44.4%	33.3%	4	0.96
How would you rate the pace of the training program? (1: too slow, 5: too fast)		7.4%	66.7%	25.9%		3.19	0.56
How familiar were you with VWs before taking this training program? (1: not familiar at all, 5: very familiar)	7%	14.8%	18.5%	29.6%	29.6%	3.59	1.28
Please rate the instructor’s knowledge and expertise in VWs. (1: poor, 5: excellent)			3.7%	11.1%	85.2%	4.81	0.48
How would you rate the support and resources provided during the online training? (1: inadequate, 5: excellent)			22.2%	14.8%	63%	4.41	0.84
Did the training help you to build your soft skills? (1: Not at all, 5: Absolutely)			20%	33.3%	46.7%	4.3	0.78
Would you recommend this training program to others? (1: Not at all, 5: Absolutely)	3.7%	3.7%	11.1%	37%	44.5%	4.15	1.03

.

The sample consists of 27 respondents, with the majority being male (77.8%) and a smaller proportion being female (22.2%). Most participants are under 19 years old (51.9%), followed by 20–39 years old (37.0%), and a smaller group in the 40–64 age range (11.1%). No participants are over 65. In terms of professional status, the largest group comprises veterinary students (77.8%), followed by employed professionals (14.8%) and university students (7.4%). There are no unemployed professionals in the sample. Geographically, participants come mainly from Spain (40.7%), followed by Italy (37.0%), Greece (18.5%), and a smaller number from Bulgaria (3.7%).

The evaluation results from the learner questionnaires further reinforce the positive reception of the training program conducted in the VW environment (Table 4). Regarding course organization and structure, most learners (81.4%) rated it positively, selecting 4 or 5 on a 5-point scale, indicating that the curriculum was perceived as well-organized and conducive to effective learning. This is supported by a high mean score of 4.22 and a moderate standard deviation (SD = 0.85), suggesting general agreement with some variation in perspectives.

The overall quality of the online training was similarly well-regarded, with 77.7% of respondents assigning scores of 4 or 5. The mean rating for this item was 4.00 (SD = 0.96), indicating a generally favorable view of the training delivery in the VW environment, though with slightly more dispersed opinions.

In terms of training pace, most learners found it appropriate, with 92.6% rating it at level 3 or 4. The average score was 3.19 (SD = 0.56), reflecting that participants perceived the tempo as balanced—neither too fast nor too slow—although this item was rated slightly lower than others, with less variability across responses.

Responses to prior familiarity with VWs showed greater diversity; nearly 30% rated themselves as highly familiar (score 5), a similar proportion indicated moderate familiarity (score 3 or 4), and 21.8% reported limited or no prior exposure (score 1 or 2). These patterns are mirrored in the statistical output, where the mean score was 3.59 and the standard deviation was the highest among all items (SD = 1.28), highlighting the heterogeneity of learners’ backgrounds. This variation underscores the importance of incorporating orientation activities to accommodate different experience levels in future iterations of the training.

The instructor’s knowledge and expertise received the strongest endorsement, with 85.2% of learners assigning the highest rating (5) and another 11.1% selecting 4. The resulting mean of 4.81 and very low SD of 0.48 indicate exceptional consistency and confidence in the instructional team.

Support and resources were also positively assessed, with 77.8% of respondents rating them at 4 or 5. Though not included in the statistical excerpt above, similar patterns in scores suggest solid satisfaction in this domain as well.

Finally, the training’s perceived impact on soft skills was affirmed by 80% of respondents selecting 4 or 5, while 81.5% expressed willingness to recommend the training program to others. These results reflect both the practical relevance of the training content and a strong overall endorsement from participants.

In addition to the questions depicted in Table 1, the questionnaire also comprised additional closed- and open-ended questions. The feedback collected through them provided valuable insights into the trainees’ experience with the virtual world (VW) training sessions. Overall, learners found the sessions to be highly interactive and engaging, highlighting the immersive nature of the learning activities and the flexibility offered by the virtual environment. Many appreciated specific features such as avatar customization, the opportunity to navigate and explore the virtual space, and the ease of access, which enabled them to participate online at their convenience.

A significant majority of learners (75%) reported that the training helped them feel more comfortable and confident in using VWs, describing the experience as both easy to use and enjoyable. Furthermore, all respondents (100%) stated that the training fully met their expectations, and they positively evaluated the instructors’ responsiveness to their questions and concerns throughout the sessions.

To formally evaluate inter-variable relationships, Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated between curriculum organization and various measures of training quality and participant background. As summarized in

Table 5. Correlation hypotheses and results.

Hypothesis	Statement	Result	Decision	Interpretation
H₀₁	No correlation between curriculum organization and overall training quality.	r = 0.80, p < 0.001	Reject H₀₁	Strong, significant positive correlation.
H₀₂	No correlation between curriculum organization and training pace.	r = 0.43, p = 0.0244	Reject H₀₂	Moderate, significant positive correlation.
H₀₃	No correlation between curriculum organization and familiarity with VWs.	r = 0.23, p = 0.2511	Fail to reject H₀₃	No significant correlation.
H₀₄	No correlation between curriculum organization and instructor expertise.	r = 0.39, p = 0.0467	Reject H₀₄	Moderate, statistically significant correlation.
H₀₅	No correlation between curriculum organization and quality of support/resources.	r = 0.68, p < 0.001	Reject H₀₅	Strong, significant positive correlation.

, the analysis revealed a strong, statistically significant correlation between curriculum organization and overall training quality (r = 0.80, p < 0.001), supporting the hypothesis that better-structured curricula enhance perceived effectiveness. Similarly, curriculum organization was positively correlated with perceptions of training pace (r = 0.43, p = 0.0244), instructor expertise (r = 0.39, p = 0.0467), and quality of support/resources (r = 0.68, p < 0.001). These findings indicate that participants’ assessments of structure and organization are strongly linked with multiple aspects of satisfaction and support. In contrast, no significant correlation was found between curriculum organization and prior familiarity with virtual environments (r = 0.23, p = 0.2511), suggesting that curriculum design quality was evaluated independently of participants’ initial technical background.

To explore potential differences in trainee satisfaction, independent samples t-tests were conducted across three grouping variables: participant role (student vs. professional), gender (male vs. female), and prior familiarity with VWs (low vs. high) as depicted in

Table 6. Satisfaction hypotheses and results.

Hypothesis	Groups Compared	Result	p-Value	Conclusion
H₀₆	Students vs. Professionals	t ≈ −2.08	p = 0.0576	Fail to reject (trend noted)
H₀₇	Males vs. Females	Not computed	Insufficient data	Test invalid
H₀₈	High vs. Low Familiarity	t ≈ −0.22	p = 0.8278	Fail to reject

. A composite satisfaction score was computed by averaging responses across four key evaluation items: curriculum organization, overall training quality, instructor expertise, and support/resources provided (refer to corresponding questions in Table 4). The comparison between students and professionals revealed that professionals reported a higher mean satisfaction score (M = 4.69) than students (M = 4.30). This difference approached but did not reach statistical significance (t ≈ −2.08, p = 0.0576), suggesting a potential trend that may warrant further investigation with a larger sample. No significant differences were observed between participants with high (M = 4.31) and low (M = 4.38) prior familiarity with virtual environments (t ≈ −0.22, p = 0.8278), indicating that prior experience did not meaningfully affect satisfaction outcomes.

A comparison based on gender could not be performed due to an insufficient number of female respondents, resulting in an invalid test. This limitation highlights the need for more balanced representation in future studies.

The assessment of the VWs also revealed some challenges. Several learners experienced technical issues, particularly with sound and real-time chat functionalities. Additionally, there were complaints regarding the speed of interaction, largely attributed to network-related problems, which in some cases negatively affected the quality of graphics and avatar movement. Some learners also commented on the spatial dimensions of the VW, suggesting that a larger environment with a more suitable selection of items could have enhanced the overall experience.

One of the limitations of the VW assessment lies in the small sample size, as well as its narrow age distribution and professional profile, which renders the findings preliminary and limits their generalizability. Such a skewed representation can affect the applicability of the findings across genders, particularly in virtual learning environments where gender dynamics may influence engagement and outcomes [40,41]. However, the study offers valuable insights into the practical implementation and perceived effectiveness of VW training for soft skills development. As one of the few empirical investigations in this domain, it lays the groundwork for future, more extensive research.

Despite these limitations, the training materials—such as videos and documents—were considered easy to access and understand within the virtual environment. Taken together, the feedback indicates that the use of VWs can be an effective and enjoyable method for delivering soft skills training to smart city engineers and technicians, while also highlighting the importance of addressing technical barriers to optimize the learning experience.

4.2. Qualitative Results

These data were retrieved through observations of the training process by the design members as well as from discussions with the trainers after the completion of each training session. The key remarks are as follows:

• The learners showed enthusiasm about the environment. However, pre-preparation through demo is mandatory to avoid any inability to navigate themselves effectively in the VW.
• The trainer must be capable of navigating in the VW and having digital skills to manage/schedule training sessions.
• The trainer needs to have advanced communication skills to engage the learners and keep them motivated, especially since, although the training is carried out through synchronous learning, learners are represented through avatars, thus enabling them to pretend or to behave differently than themselves in the real world or within traditional educational settings.
• The course is designed to promote interaction among learners. However, if they are not active, they could fall behind as a result. Again, the trainer should find additional ways to stimulate the learner’s engagement, which has a higher level of difficulty since learners may be “hiding” behind their avatar’s identity.
• The fact that each theme was to be presented in a different spot within the VW has proved to be really demanding, not only for the trainer but also for the learners, since some of them lacked confidence in navigating effectively between the different spots in the VW.
• From a technical aspect, there were challenges mostly related to the equipment needed by the learners to properly attend the training. Some learners could not activate their microphones, whilst some others had issues with the sound. Although the design team had proceeded with modifications in the settings (like adding a button for muting and unmuting learners, or the possibility to make the trainers’ place in the VW visible by all), this cannot ensure effective and proper attendance in the VWs by the learners.

5. Conclusions

This article presented the soft skills VW developed and piloted within the framework of a training program on technical and non-technical skills for smart cities engineers and technicians. More specifically, it includes the detailed methodological approach adapted for the design and the use of the VW during the online multi-user sessions, describes the technical infrastructure used for the development of the VW and depicts the piloting procedure and collected results concerning the experience of both trainees and trainers who participated in the soft skills training.

The assessment, even if preliminary, provided some interesting insights. The VW received positive comments from both professionals and students. Participants found the curriculum well-structured and the overall training experience engaging and effective. The virtual environment supported interactive learning, with features like avatar customization and flexible access enhancing learner engagement. Despite varying levels of prior familiarity with VWs, most learners reported increased confidence and comfort using the platform. Instructor expertise and the quality of support and materials were also highly appreciated. While some technical challenges were noted—such as sound issues and connectivity-related delays—these did not significantly hinder the overall learning experience. Feedback suggests that VWs offer a promising approach for soft skills training, combining immersive experiences with practical accessibility. Addressing technical limitations and offering introductory guidance can further optimize their effectiveness in professional development contexts.

The statistical analysis of participant responses reinforced the overall positive impression of the training experience in the VW environment. A notable variation was found in participants’ prior familiarity with virtual environments, highlighting the importance of providing onboarding or orientation sessions to ensure equitable access and engagement. The analysis also revealed strong associations between how well the curriculum was structured and learners’ perceptions of training quality and support. These results underscore the critical role of instructional design in shaping positive outcomes in virtual environments. Additionally, while there was a trend toward higher satisfaction among professionals compared to students, no statistically significant differences emerged based on participant role or prior experience with virtual worlds.

Concluding, VWs offer significant advantages referring to skills development and training. They provide immersive and experiential learning, which in the case of soft skills can prove very efficient for communication and leadership. They also offer a safe environment where people can express themselves more openly since there is no physical presence and interaction. Training can take place from anywhere, thus being more inclusive and flexible, while it is engaging and motivational due to its gamification and interactive elements. Moreover, multi-user VWs that support real-time interaction, like the one presented in this work, enable team-based learning and offer an adequate environment to develop and assess soft skills.

Nevertheless, VWs must face specific challenges that mainly concern the high technical requirements for connecting and operating smoothly inside them and the high cost of developing and maintaining a custom VW. Another issue is the steep learning curve of new users who often deal with interaction unfamiliarity, as well as the fact that these environments may prove lonely and impersonal for users that have difficulties, either technical or interpersonal. In addition, there are researchers that stress the problem of limited transferability of acquired skills to real life.