Association between Coffee Consumption and Its Polyphenols with Cardiovascular Risk Factors: A Population-Based Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Dietary Assessment
2.2.1. Assessment of Coffee Consumption
2.2.2. Estimation of Polyphenol Intake from Coffee
2.3. Demographic and Lifestyle Characteristics
2.4. Anthropometric Measurements
2.5. Outcome Measurements
2.5.1. Blood Pressure (BP)
2.5.2. Blood Samples
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Financial Disclosure
References
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Characteristics | Coffee Consumption, Cups per Day | p-Value a | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
<1 | 1–3 | ≥3 | Total | ||
No. of subjects | 193 | 185 | 179 | 557 | |
Sociodemographic | |||||
Age (years), median (IQR) | 40 (29.0, 53.0) | 44 (33.0, 57.0) | 47 (36.0, 57.0) | 61 (44.0, 70.5) | 0.013 1 |
Sex, n (%) | |||||
Male | 64 (40.9) | 71 (50.2) | 71 (47.0) | 206 (45.8) | 0.360 2 |
Female | 129 (59.1) | 114 (49.8) | 108 (53.0) | 351 (54.2) | |
Race, n (%) | |||||
White | 120 (63.0) | 109 (58.1) | 117 (62.1) | 346 (61.1) | 0.918 2 |
Black | 14 (5.8) | 18 (6.5) | 9 (6.4) | 41 (6.2) | |
Others | 59 (31.2) | 58 (35.4) | 53 (31.5) | 170 (32.7) | |
Household per capita income, n (%) | |||||
<1 MW | 80 (34.6) | 83 (37.5) | 68 (38.3) | 231 (36.7) | 0.851 2 |
≥1 MW | 113 (65.4) | 102 (62.5) | 111 (61.7) | 326 (63.3) | |
Physical activity level, n (%) | |||||
Low | 157 (74.1) | 161 (80.5) | 152 (79.2) | 470 (77.7) | 0.608 2 |
Moderate/High | 36 (25.9) | 23 (19.5) | 27 (20.8) | 86 (22.3) | |
Smoking status, n (%) | |||||
Non-smoker | 114 (65.6) | 96 (56.1) | 97 (52.1) | 307 (58.4) | 0.034 2 |
Smoker | 79 (34.4) | 82 (43.9) | 89 (47.9) | 250 (41.6) | |
Body Mass Index (kg/m2), median (IQR) | 25.2 (23.2, 29.1) | 24.9 (22.7, 28.6) | 26.7 (23.7, 30.8) | 26.5 (23.6, 30.5) | 0.307 1 |
Biochemical | |||||
SBP (mm Hg), n (%) | |||||
Normal | 133 (80.1) | 130 (87.2) | 119 (77.3) | 382 (81.5) | 0.089 2 |
Elevated | 60 (19.9) | 55 (12.8) | 60 (22.7) | 175 (18.5) | |
DBP (mm Hg), n (%) | |||||
Normal | 163 (85.3) | 168 (91.5) | 144 (81.8) | 465 (86.2) | 0.045 2 |
Elevated | 30 (14.7) | 27 (8.5) | 35 (18.2) | 92 (13.8) | |
FPG (mg/dL), n (%) | |||||
Normal | 167 (90.9) | 154 (86.0) | 158 (92.5) | 479 (89.8) | 0.177 2 |
Elevated | 26 (9.1) | 31 (14.0) | 21 (7.4) | 78 (10.2) | |
TC (mg/dL), n (%) | |||||
Normal | 118 (69.0) | 98 (58.7) | 88 (54.0) | 304 (61.1) | 0.061 2 |
Elevated | 75 (31.0) | 87 (41.3) | 91 (46.0) | 253 (38.9) | |
LDL-c (mg/dL), n (%) | |||||
Normal | 63 (36.2) | 46 (26.6) | 31 (20.5) | 140 (28.2) | 0.098 2 |
Elevated | 130 (63.8) | 139 (73.4) | 148 (79.5) | 417 (71.8) | |
HDL-c (mg/dL), n (%) | |||||
Normal | 150 (68.7) | 133 (61.1) | 129 (61.2) | 412 (64.0) | 0.466 2 |
Elevated | 43 (31.3) | 52 (38.9) | 50 (38.8) | 145 (36.0) | |
TG (mg/dL), n (%) | |||||
Normal | 135 (74.2) | 123 (69.5) | 116 (66.8) | 374 (70.4) | 0.565 2 |
Elevated | 58 (25.8) | 62 (30.5) | 63 (33.2) | 183 (29.6) | |
Homocysteine (µmol/L) | |||||
Normal | 163 (88.0) | 162 (93.4) | 156 (89.9) | 481 (90.3) | 0.350 2 |
Elevated | 30 (12.0) | 23 (6.6) | 23 (10.1) | 76 (9.7) | |
Dietetic | |||||
Coffee polyphenol intake (mg/day), median (IQR) | 66.6 (0, 147.4) | 261.6 (225.3, 297.3) | 408.4 (351.8, 546.1) | 247.0 (145.9, 346.7) | <0.001 1 |
Caffeine intake (mg/day), median (IQR) | 44.7 (24.0, 67.1) | 91.3 (80.2, 100.6) | 147.3 (117.3, 173.3) | 92.4 (60.8, 125.2) | <0.001 1 |
Alcohol intake (g/day), median (IQR) | 0.1 (0.0, 1.2) | 0.2 (0.0, 2.3) | 0.3 (0.0, 3.2) | 0.2 (0.0, 2.1) | 0.412 1 |
Sodium intake (mg/day), median (IQR) | 2986.1 (2526.5, 3848.9) | 3260.0 (2563.4, 3895.6) | 3015.9 (2567.4, 3677.5) | 2863.4 (2342.0, 3472.7) | 0.995 1 |
Total energy intake (kcal/day), median (IQR) | 1679.4 (1354.4, 2013.8) | 1712.8 (1382.3, 2152.6) | 1671.1 (1361.8, 2010.2) | 1543.9 (1243.8, 1887.9) | 0.615 1 |
Cardiovascular Risk Factors | Coffee Consumption, cups per Day | ||
---|---|---|---|
<1 | 1–3 | ≥3 | |
Elevated SBP (≥140 mm Hg) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 0.58 (0.33, 1.05) | 1.17 (0.63, 2.21) |
OR adjusted 1 | 1.00 | 0.45 (0.26, 0.78) | 0.81 (0.41, 1.61) |
Elevated DBP (≥90 mm Hg) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 0.54 (0.24, 1.22) | 1.30 (0.66, 2.54) |
OR adjusted 1 | 1.00 | 0.44 (0.20, 0.98) | 0.89 (0.45, 1.75) |
Increased FPG (≥100 mg/dL) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 1.64 (0.82, 3.24) | 0.81 (0.34, 1.92) |
OR adjusted 2 | 1.00 | 1.39 (0.60, 3.23) | 0.72 (0.22, 2.26) |
Increased TC (≥200 mg/dL) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 1.57 (0.86, 2.85) | 1.89 (1.22, 2.93) |
OR adjusted 3 | 1.00 | 1.46 (0.76, 2.80) | 1.45 (0.94, 2.22) |
Increased LDL-c (>100 mg/dL) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 1.56 (0.76, 3.20) | 2.20 (1.12, 4.32) |
OR adjusted 3 | 1.00 | 1.46 (0.68, 3.12) | 2.07 (0.92, 4.67) |
Reduced HDL-c (<40 mg/dL men; <50 mg/dL women) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 1.40 (0.77, 2.54) | 1.39 (0.75, 2.59) |
OR adjusted 3 | 1.67 (0.87, 3.20) | 1.77 (0.80, 3.94) | |
Increased TG (≥150 mg/dL) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 1.26 (0.59, 2.71) | 1.43 (0.73, 2.80) |
OR adjusted 3 | 1.00 | 1.26 (0.59, 2.63) | 1.35 (0.61, 2.98) |
Increased Homocysteine (>12 µmol/L adults; >16 µmol/L older adults) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 0.52 (0.16, 1.43) | 0.82 (0.35, 1.94) |
OR adjusted 4 | 1.00 | 0.32 (0.11, 0.93) | 0.43 (0.19, 1.01) |
Cardiovascular Risk Factors | Polyphenol Intake from Coffee, mg per Day a | ||
---|---|---|---|
<101 | 101–337 | ≥337 | |
Elevated SBP (≥140 mm Hg) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 0.55 (0.30, 1.02) | 0.94 (0.52, 1.73) |
OR adjusted 1 | 1.00 | 0.46 (0.24, 0.87) | 0.72 (0.35,1.45) |
Elevated DBP (≥90 mm Hg) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 0.52 (0.26, 1.06) | 0.86 (0.45, 1.65) |
OR adjusted 1 | 1.00 | 0.51 (0.26, 0.98) | 0.70 (0.39, 1.27) |
Increased FPG (≥100 mg/dL) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 1.77 (0.97, 3.23) | 0.66 (0.28, 1.58) |
OR adjusted 2 | 1.00 | 1.98 (0.87, 4.54) | 0.71 (0.23, 2.20) |
Increased TC (≥200 mg/dL) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 0.96 (0.54, 1.72) | 1.35 (0.92, 1.98) |
OR adjusted 3 | 1.00 | 0.83 (0.44, 1.57) | 1.07 (0.71, 1.59) |
Increased LDL-c (>100 mg/dL) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 1.05 (0.49, 2.25) | 1.80 (0.86, 3.75) |
OR adjusted 3 | 1.00 | 0.99 (0.45, 2.17) | 1.67 (0.70, 4.03) |
Reduced HDL-c (<40 mg/dL men; <50 mg/dL women) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 1.31 (0.78, 2.18) | 1.31 (0.74, 2.31) |
OR adjusted 3 | 1.00 | 1.27 (0.70, 2.31) | 1.51 (0.74, 3.07) |
Increased TG (≥150 mg/dL) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 0.87 (0.45, 1.71) | 1.00 (0.52, 1.92) |
OR adjusted 3 | 1.00 | 0.72 (0.36, 1.45) | 0.86 (0.41, 1.78) |
Increased Homocysteine (>12 µmol/L adults; >16 µmol/L older adults) | |||
OR crude (unadjusted) | 1.00 | 0.52 (0.18, 1.51) | 0.84 (0.40,1.81) |
OR adjusted 4 | 1.00 | 0.29 (0.11, 0.78) | 0.59 (0.31, 1.11) |
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Miranda, A.M.; Steluti, J.; Fisberg, R.M.; Marchioni, D.M. Association between Coffee Consumption and Its Polyphenols with Cardiovascular Risk Factors: A Population-Based Study. Nutrients 2017, 9, 276. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9030276
Miranda AM, Steluti J, Fisberg RM, Marchioni DM. Association between Coffee Consumption and Its Polyphenols with Cardiovascular Risk Factors: A Population-Based Study. Nutrients. 2017; 9(3):276. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9030276
Chicago/Turabian StyleMiranda, Andreia Machado, Josiane Steluti, Regina Mara Fisberg, and Dirce Maria Marchioni. 2017. "Association between Coffee Consumption and Its Polyphenols with Cardiovascular Risk Factors: A Population-Based Study" Nutrients 9, no. 3: 276. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9030276