Reducing the Number of Times Eating Out Helps to Decrease Adiposity (Overweight/Obesity) in Children
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Assessments
2.2. Percentage of Adequacy of Energy Intake
2.3. Sedentary Screen Time
2.4. Sleep Duration
2.5. Mean Difference
2.6. Clinically Relevant BMI z-Score Reduction
2.7. Data Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Mechanick, J.I.; Hurley, D.L.; Garvey, W.T. Adiposity-based chronic disease as a new diagnostic term: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American College of Endocrinology Position. Endocr. Pract. 2016, 23, 372–378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shamah-Levy, T.; Cuevas-Nasu, L.; Gaona-Pineda, E.B.; Gómez-Acosta, L.M.; Morales-Ruán, M.C.; Hernández-Ávila, M.; Rivera-Dommarco, J. Sobrepeso y obesidad en niños y adolescentes en México, actualización de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición de Medio Camino 2016. Salud Publica Mex. 2018, 60, 244–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spear, B.A.; Barlow, S.E.; Ervin, C.; Ludwig, D.S.; Saelens, B.E.; Schetzina, K.E.; Taveras, E.M. Recommendations for treatment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity. Pediatrics 2007, 120, S254–S288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leech, R.M.; Worsley, A.; Timperio, A.; McNaughton, S.A. Understanding meal patterns: Definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality. Nutr. Res. Rev. 2015, 28, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ekmekcioglu, C.; Touitou, Y. Chronobiological aspects of food intake and metabolism and their relevance on energy balance and weight regulation. Obes. Rev. 2011, 12, 14–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Franko, D.L.; Striegel-Moore, R.H.; Thompson, D.; Affenito, S.G.; Schreiber, G.B.; Daniels, S.R.; Crawford, P.B. The relationship between meal frequency and body mass index in black and white adolescent girls: More is less. Int. J. Obes. 2008, 32, 23–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Smeets, A.J.; Westerterp-Plantenga, M.S. Acute effects on metabolism and appetite profile of one meal difference in the lower range of meal frequency. Br. J. Nutr. 2008, 99, 1316–1321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Niemier, H.M.; Raynor, H.A.; Lloyd-Richardson, E.E.; Rogers, M.L.; Wing, R.R. Fast food consumption and breakfast skipping: Predictors of weight gain from adolescence to adulthood in a nationally representative sample. J. Adolesc. Health 2006, 39, 842849. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Thompson, O.M.; Ballew, C.; Resnicow, K.; Must, A.; Bandini, L.G.; Cyr, H.; Dietz, W.H. Food purchased away from home as a predictor of change in BMI z-score among girls. Int. J. Obes. 2006, 28, 282–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- U.S. Department of Agriculture. Center for nutrition policy and promotion. The food environment, eating out, and body weight: A review of the evidence. Nutr. Insight 2012, 49. [Google Scholar]
- Pereira, M.A.; Kartashov, A.I.; Ebbeling, C.B.; Van Horn, L.; Slattery, M.L.; Jacobs, D.; Ludwig, D. Fast-food habits, weight gain, and insulin resistance (the CARDIA study): 15-year prospective analysis. Lancet 2005, 365, 36–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Graaf, C. Why liquid energy results in overconsumption. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2011, 70, 162–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zijlstra, N.; Wijk, R.A.; Mars, M.; Stafleu, A.; de Graaf, C. Effect of bite size and oral processing time of a semisolid food on satiation. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 90, 269–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kokkinos, A.; le Roux, C.W.; Alexiadou, K.; Tentolouris, N.; Vincent, R.P.; Kyriaki, D.; Perrea, D.; Ghatei, M.A.; Bloom, S.R.; Katsilambros, N. Eating slowly increases the postprandial response of the anorexigenic gut hormones, Peptide YY and Glucagon-Like Peptide-1. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2010, 95, 333–337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Angelopoulos, T.; Kokkinos, A.; Liaskos, C.; Tentolouris, N.; Alexiadou, K.; Miras, A.; Mourouzis, I.; Perrea, D.; Pantos, C.; Katsilambros, N.; et al. The effect of slow spaced eating on hunger and satiety in overweight and obese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. BMJ Open Diabetes Res. Care 2014, 2, e000013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ochiai, H.; Shirasawa, T.; Nanri, H.; Nishimura, R.; Hoshino, H.; Kokaze, A. Relationship between eating quickly and overweight: A cohort study of schoolchildren in Japan. Acta Med. Okayama 2018, 72, 121–128. [Google Scholar]
- Nicklas, T.A.; Baranowski, T.; Cullen, K.W.; Berenson, G. Eating Patterns, dietary quality and obesity. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2001, 20, 599–608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Timlin, M.T.; Pereira, M.A.; Story, M.; Neumark-Sztainer, D. Breakfast eating and weight change in a 5-year prospective analysis of adolescents: Project EAT (Eating Among Teens). Pediatrics 2008, 121, e638–e645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rosenheck, R. Fast food consumption and increased caloric intake: A systematic review of a trajectory towards gain and obesity risk. Obes. Rev. 2008, 9, 535–547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- RoRodriguez-Ventura, A.; Parra-Solano, A.; Illescas-Zárate, D.; Hernández-Flores, M.; Paredes, C.; Flores-Cisneros, C.; Sánchez, B.; Tolentino, M.; Sámano, R.; Chinchilla, D. “Sacbe”, a comprehensive intervention to decrease body mass index in children with adiposity: A pilot study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reinehr, T. Effectiveness of lifestyle intervention in overweight children. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2011, 70, 494–505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kolsgaard, M.L.; Joner, G.; Brunborg, C.; Anderssen, S.A.; Tonstad, S.; Andersen, L.F. Reduction in BMI z-score and improvement in cardiometabolic risk factors in obese children and adolescents. The Oslo Adiposity Intervention Study—A hospital/public health nurse combined treatment. BMC Pediatr. 2011, 11, 47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pledge, F. Unravelling the commercial determinants of health. Lancet 2023, 401, 1131. [Google Scholar]
- Savoye, M.; Shaw, M.; Dziura, J.; Tamborlane, W.V.; Rose, P.; Guandalini, C.; Goldberg-Gell, R.; Burgert, T.S.; Cali, A.M.G.; Weiss, R.; et al. Effects of a weight management program on body composition and metabolic parameters in overweight children: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2007, 297, 2697–2704. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nicklas, T.A.; Morales, M.; Linares, A.; Yang, S.J.; Baranowski, T.; De Moor, C.; Berenson, G. Children’s meal patterns have changed over a 21-year period: The Bogalusa Heart Study. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2004, 104, 753–761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kruger, J.; Blanck, H.M.; Gillespie, C. Dietary practices, dining out behavior, and physical activity correlates of weight loss maintenance. Prev. Chronic. Dis. 2008, 5, A11. Available online: http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2008/jan/06_0158.htm (accessed on 21 October 2018). [PubMed]
- Oude Luttikhuis, H.; Baur, L.; Jansen, H.; Shrewsbury, V.A.; O’Malley, C.; Stolk, R.P.; Summerbell, C.D. Interventions for treating obesity in children (Review). Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2009, 3, CD001872. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nago, E.S.; Lachat, C.K.; Dossa, R.A.M.; Kolsteren, P.W. Association of out-of-home eating with anthropometric changes: A systematic review of prospective studies. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2014, 54, 1103–1116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bowman, S.A.; Gortmaker, S.L.; Ebbeling, C.B.; Pereira, M.A.; Ludwig, D.S. Effects of fast-food consumption on energy intake and diet quality among children in a national household survey. Pediatrics 2004, 113 Pt 1, 112–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schmidt, M.; Affenito, S.G.; Striegel-Moore, R.; Khoury, P.R.; Barton, B.; Crawford, P.; Kronsberg, S.; Schreiber, G.; Obarzanek, E.; Daniels, S. Fast-food intake and diet quality in black and white girls. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2005, 159, 626–631. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ebbeling, C.B.; Sinclair, K.B.; Pereira, M.A.; Garcia-Lago, E.; Feldman, H.A.; Ludwig, D.S. Compensation for energy intake from last fast food among overweight and lean adolescents. JAMA 2004, 291, 2828–2833. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Marlatt, K.L.; Farbakhsh, K.; Dengel, D.R.; Lytle, L.A. Breakfast and fast food consumption are associated with selected biomarkers in adolescents. Prev. Med. Rep. 2015, 3, 49–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ochiai, H.; Shirasawa, T.; Ohtsu, T.; Nishimura, R.; Morimoto, A.; Hoshino, H.; Tajima, N.; Kokaze, A. The impact of eating quickly on anthropometric variables among schoolgirls: A prospective cohort study in Japan. Eur. J. Public Health 2013, 24, 691–695. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Characteristics and Habits | Baseline Visit Median (IQR) | Follow Up Median (IQR) | p |
---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 12 (9.1, 14.7) | 12.7 (9.6, 15.2) | <0.001 † |
Weight (kg) | 56.5 (43.3, 73.1) | 57.8 (44.7, 73.6) | 0.006 † |
Height (cm) | 150.0 (135.8, 158.4) | 152.4 (139.7, 161.1) | <0.001 † |
BMI z-score (SD) | 2.30 ± 0.83 | 2.10 ± 0.79 | <0.001 * |
Energy intake (kcal/day) | 1475 (1205, 1877) | 1331 (1124, 1565) | 0.001 † |
Energy estimated requirement | 2107 (1757, 2491) | 2148 (1768, 2669) | 0.093 † |
Physical activity (min/day) | 17 (5, 43) | 26 (14, 44) | 0.011 † |
Percentage of adequacy of energy intake (%) | 71.8 (53.0, 89.2) | 62.9 (51.0, 75.2) | <0.001 † |
Sleep duration (h/day) | 9.0 (7.9, 9.5) | 8.9 (7.9, 9.4) | 0.936 † |
Sedentary screen time (h/day) | 3.5 (2.5, 5.0) | 3.3 (2.4, 4.8) | 0.302 † |
Sitting time (h/day) | 7.2 (5.0, 9.0) | 6.7 (5.0, 8.0) | 0.008 † |
N (%) | N(%) | p | |
Obesity | 68 (61.8%) | 61 (58.1%) | 0.092 ‡ |
Recommended sleep | 65 (60.7%) | 58 (54.2%) | 0.360 ‡ |
≥3 eating episodes/day | 85 (78.7%) | 99 (92.5%) | 0.001 ‡ |
Eating breakfast waking up | 60 (54.5%) | 84 (78.5%) | <0.001 ‡ |
Eating out < once/week | 52 (47.3%) | 65 (59.6%) | 0.029 ‡ |
Eating speed ≥ 20 min | 78 (70.9%) | 92 (84.4%) | 0.014 ‡ |
Characteristics | Clinically Relevant BMI z-Score Reduction (n = 45) | Not Enought BMI z-Score Reduction (n = 65) | p | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline | Follow-Up | Difference | Baseline | Follow-Up | Difference | ||
Age (years) | 11.9 (8.8, 15.2) | 12.4 (9.2, 15.4) * | 0.3 (0.2, 0.7) | 12.0 (9.5, 14.5) | 12.8(10.2, 15.2) * | 0.7 (0.4, 0.9) | <0.001 † |
Weight (kg) | 53.3 (42.4, 74) | 53.5 (42, 72) * | −1.1 (−2.7, −0.1) | 56.9 (43.5, 72.6) | 59.5(47.4, 74.6) * | 2.3 (0.8, 4.1) | <0.001 † |
Height (cm) | 150 (133, 158) | 152 (136, 160) * | 1.5 (0.4, 3.0) | 150 (138, 160) | 153 (141, 161) * | 2.5 (0.9, 3.4) | 0.082 † |
BMI z-score (SD) | 2.48 ± 1.1 | 2.07 ± 1.0 ** | −0.43 ±0.29 | 2.16 ± 0.58 | 2.13 ± 0.56 ** | −0.05 ± 0.17 | <0.001 ‡ |
Energy intake (kcal/d) | 1461 (1126, 1948) | 1264 (1103, 1509) * | −201 (−388, 86) | 1475 (1245, 1846) | 1397 (1189, 1661) * | −213 (−477, 237) | 0.901 † |
Energy requirement | 2152 (1779, 2545) | 2126 (1770, 2521) | −23 (−128, 67) | 2066 (1737, 2476) | 2215 (1742, 2755) * | 52 (−24, 342) | 0.001 † |
Physical activity (min/day) | 17 (0, 40) | 23 (12, 38) | 4 (−13, 17) | 17 (9, 43) | 29 (14, 46) * | 5 (−7, 22) | 0.632 † |
% of Adequacy energy intake | 68.2 (54.2, 85.8) | 63.7 (50.4, 74.2) * | −3.7 (−25.3, 5.4) | 73.9 (52.3, 91.6) | 62.6 (50.9, 77.3) * | −11.8 (−28.7, 7.1) | 0.541 † |
Sleep duration (h/day) | 9.0 h (7.8, 9.9) | 9.0 h (8.2, 9.5) | −6 min (−57, 53) | 8.9 h (7.9, 9.3) | 8.8 h (7.6, 9.4) | 9 min (−38, 38) | 0.806 † |
Screen time (h/day) | 3.5 h (2.9, 5.1) | 3.3 h (2.2, 5.0) | −30 min (−110, 42) | 3.0 h (2.0, 4.4) | 3.3 h (2.5, 4.7) | −1 min (−88, 90) | 0.161 † |
Sitting time (h/day) | 7.2 h (5.0, 9.0) | 6.4 h (5.0, 7.5) * | −35 min (−163, 58) | 7.0 h (5.0, 9.0) | 7.1 h (5.5, 8.0) | −35 min (−149, 55) | 0.682 † |
Follow-up (months) | 4.1 (2.1, 7.6) | 7.9 (5.2, 10.8) | <0.001 † |
HR (CI 95%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
RR (CI 95%) Unadjusted | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |
Eating ≥ 3 meals per day | 1.51 (0.95–2.41) | NA | 1.08 (0.54–2.18) | 1.13 (0.56–2.28) |
Eating breakfast in the first 2 h of waking up | 1.25 (0.80–1.95) | 1.11 (0.6 -2.07) ‡ | 1.17 (0.62–2.21) | 1.14 (0.60–2.17) |
Eating out < once/week | 1.61 (1.03–2.50) | NA | 2.01 (1.03–3.95) | 2.12 (1.07–4.21) |
Eating ≥ 20 min | 0.77 (0.41–1.42) | 0.96 (0.43-2.16) † | 0.88 (0.37–2.09) | 0.90 (0.38–2.13) |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Parra-Solano, A.; Hernández-Flores, M.; Sánchez, B.; Paredes, C.; Monroy, L.; Palacios, F.; Almaguer, L.; Rodriguez-Ventura, A. Reducing the Number of Times Eating Out Helps to Decrease Adiposity (Overweight/Obesity) in Children. Nutrients 2024, 16, 2899. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172899
Parra-Solano A, Hernández-Flores M, Sánchez B, Paredes C, Monroy L, Palacios F, Almaguer L, Rodriguez-Ventura A. Reducing the Number of Times Eating Out Helps to Decrease Adiposity (Overweight/Obesity) in Children. Nutrients. 2024; 16(17):2899. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172899
Chicago/Turabian StyleParra-Solano, Arturo, Minerva Hernández-Flores, Bernarda Sánchez, Carolina Paredes, Luis Monroy, Florinda Palacios, Laura Almaguer, and Ana Rodriguez-Ventura. 2024. "Reducing the Number of Times Eating Out Helps to Decrease Adiposity (Overweight/Obesity) in Children" Nutrients 16, no. 17: 2899. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172899
APA StyleParra-Solano, A., Hernández-Flores, M., Sánchez, B., Paredes, C., Monroy, L., Palacios, F., Almaguer, L., & Rodriguez-Ventura, A. (2024). Reducing the Number of Times Eating Out Helps to Decrease Adiposity (Overweight/Obesity) in Children. Nutrients, 16(17), 2899. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172899