Benefits of Whey Proteins on Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Parameters and Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Whey and Dairy Product Intake Induce Benefits on T2DM Parameters
2.1. Whey Intake Improved Insulin Secretion and Postprandial Glycemia
2.2. Effects on Insulin Resistance and Glycated Hemoglobin
3. Mechanisms of Whey and Dairy Proteins Associated with Decrease in Postprandial Glycemia
3.1. Activity of Amino Acids on Insulin Secretion
3.2. Incretin Secretion and Insulin Secretion
3.3. Gastric Emptying Effect on Postprandial Glycemia
3.4. Gut Hormones, Amino Acids, and Satiety
4. Other Mechanisms of Whey and Dairy Proteins Associated with the Benefits on T2DM and Cardiovascular Risk
4.1. Effects of Whey Intake on Lipid Profile
4.2. Improvement of Obesity and Weight by Whey Intake
4.3. Effect of Whey Intake on Hypertension
4.4. Importance of Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Whey Proteins with Regard to T2DM and Cardiovascular Health
5. Discussion on Long-Term Effects of Whey Protein and of Other Natural Compounds on Glycemic Parameters, T2DM, and Cardiovascular Health
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- World Health Organization. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cardiovascular-diseases-(cvds) (accessed on 11 June 2021).
- Einarson, T.R.; Acs, A.; Ludwig, C.; Panton, U.H. Prevalence of cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes: A systematic literature review of scientific evidence from across the world in 2007–2017. Cardiovasc. Diabetol. 2018, 17, 83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sun, H.; Saeedi, P.; Karuranga, S.; Pinkepank, M.; Ogurtsova, K.; Duncan, B.B.; Stein, C.; Basit, A.; Chan, J.C.N.; Mbanya, J.C.; et al. IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global, regional and country-level diabetes prevalence estimates for 2021 and projections for 2045. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2022, 183, 109119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- DeFronzo, R.A.; Ferrannini, E.; Groop, L.; Henry, R.R.; Herman, W.H.; Holst, J.J.; Hu, F.B.; Kahn, C.R.; Raz, I.; Shulman, G.I.; et al. Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nat. Rev. Dis. Prim. 2015, 1, 15019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dendup, T.; Feng, X.; Clingan, S.; Astell-Burt, T. Environmental Risk Factors for Developing Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mozaffarian, D. Dietary and Policy Priorities for Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and Obesity: A Comprehensive Review. Circulation 2016, 133, 187–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hansen, A.B.; Ravnskjær, L.; Loft, S.; Andersen, K.K.; Bräuner, E.V.; Baastrup, R.; Yao, C.; Ketzel, M.; Becker, T.; Brandt, J.; et al. Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter and incidence of diabetes in the Danish Nurse Cohort. Environ. Int. 2016, 91, 243–250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Thomas, D.E.; Elliott, E.J. The use of low-glycaemic index diets in diabetes control. Br. J. Nutr. 2010, 104, 797–802. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dong, J.Y.; Zhang, Z.L.; Wang, P.Y.; Qin, L.Q. Effects of high-protein diets on body weight, glycaemic control, blood lipids and blood pressure in type 2 diabetes: Meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br. J. Nutr. 2013, 110, 781–789. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Viana, L.V.; Gross, J.L.; Azevedo, M.J. Dietary intervention in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials on maternal and newborn outcomes. Diabetes Care 2014, 37, 3345–3355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hass, H.B. What’s new in sugar research. In Proceedings of the American Society of Sugar Beet Technologists, Denver, CO, USA, 2–5 February 1954. [Google Scholar]
- Kearns, C.E.; Schmidt, L.A.; Glantz, S.A. Sugar Industry and Coronary Heart Disease Research: A Historical Analysis of Internal Industry Documents. JAMA Intern. Med. 2016, 176, 1680–1685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- O’Connor, A. How the Sugar Industry Shifted Blame to Fat. Available online: http://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/13/well/eat/how-the-sugar-industry-shifted-blame-to-fat.html?_r=0 (accessed on 12 September 2016).
- Lichtenstein, A.H.; Appel, L.J.; Vadiveloo, M.; Hu, F.B.; Kris-Etherton, P.M.; Rebholz, C.M.; Sacks, F.M.; Thorndike, A.N.; Van Horn, L.; Wylie-Rosett, J. 2021 Dietary Guidance to Improve Cardiovascular Health: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation 2021, 144, e472–e487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Becerra-Tomás, N.; Blanco Mejía, S.; Viguiliouk, E.; Khan, T.; Kendall, C.W.C.; Kahleova, H.; Rahelić, D.; Sievenpiper, J.L.; Salas-Salvadó, J. Mediterranean diet, cardiovascular disease and mortality in diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies and randomized clinical trials. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2020, 60, 1207–1227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Toi, P.L.; Anothaisintawee, T.; Chaikledkaew, U.; Briones, J.R.; Reutrakul, S.; Thakkinstian, A. Preventive Role of Diet Interventions and Dietary Factors in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: An Umbrella Review. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tian, S.; Xu, Q.; Jiang, R.; Han, T.; Sun, C.; Na, L. Dietary Protein Consumption and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies. Nutrients 2017, 9, 982. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tong, X.; Dong, J.Y.; Wu, Z.W.; Li, W.; Qin, L.Q. Dairy consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: A meta-analysis of cohort studies. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 65, 1027–1031. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Jensen, R.G. Handbook of Milk Composition; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 1995. [Google Scholar]
- Walzem, R.L.; Dillard, C.J.; German, J.B. Whey components: Millennia of evolution create functionalities for mammalian nutrition: What we know and what we may be overlooking. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2002, 42, 353–375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kosikowski, F.V. Whey and Whey Foods, Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods; Kosikowski, F.V., Ed.; Edwards Brothers: New York, NY, USA, 1982; pp. 446–469. [Google Scholar]
- Jovanović, S.; Barać, M.; Maćej, O. Whey Proteins-Properties and Possibility of Application. Mljekarstvo 2005, 55, 215–233. [Google Scholar]
- Aune, D.; Norat, T.; Romundstad, P.; Vatten, L.J. Dairy products and the risk of type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of cohort studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013, 98, 1066–1083. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pal, S.; Ellis, V. The acute effects of four protein meals on insulin, glucose, appetite and energy intake in lean men. Br. J. Nutr. 2010, 104, 1241–1248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pal, S.; Ellis, V. The chronic effects of whey proteins on blood pressure, vascular function, and inflammatory markers in overweight individuals. Obesity 2010, 18, 1354–1359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jonker, J.T.; Wijngaarden, M.A.; Kloek, J.; Groeneveld, Y.; Gerhardt, C.; Brand, R.; Kies, A.K.; Romijn, J.A.; Smit, J.W. Effects of low doses of casein hydrolysate on post-challenge glucose and insulin levels. Eur. J. Intern. Med. 2011, 22, 245–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gunnerud, U.J.; Ostman, E.M.; Björck, I.M. Effects of whey proteins on glycaemia and insulinaemia to an oral glucose load in healthy adults; a dose-response study. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013, 67, 749–753. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Manders, R.J.; Hansen, D.; Zorenc, A.H.; Dendale, P.; Kloek, J.; Saris, W.H.; van Loon, L.J. Protein co-ingestion strongly increases postprandial insulin secretion in type 2 diabetes patients. J. Med. Food 2014, 17, 758–763. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mortensen, L.S.; Holmer-Jensen, J.; Hartvigsen, M.L.; Jensen, V.K.; Astrup, A.; de Vrese, M.; Holst, J.J.; Thomsen, C.; Hermansen, K. Effects of different fractions of whey protein on postprandial lipid and hormone responses in type 2 diabetes. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2012, 66, 799–805. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Petersen, B.L.; Ward, L.S.; Bastian, E.D.; Jenkins, A.L.; Campbell, J.; Vuksan, V. A whey protein supplement decreases post-prandial glycemia. Nutr. J. 2009, 8, 47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Adams, R.L.; Broughton, K.S. Insulinotropic Effects of Whey: Mechanisms of Action, Recent Clinical Trials, and Clinical Applications. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 2016, 69, 56–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Smith, K.; Taylor, G.S.; Brunsgaard, L.H.; Walker, M.; Bowden Davies, K.A.; Stevenson, E.J.; West, D.J. Thrice daily consumption of a novel, premeal shot containing a low dose of whey protein increases time in euglycemia during 7 days of free-living in individuals with type 2 diabetes. BMJ Open Diabetes Res. Care 2022, 10, e002820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Comerford, K.B.; Pasin, G. Emerging Evidence for the Importance of Dietary Protein Source on Glucoregulatory Markers and Type 2 Diabetes: Different Effects of Dairy, Meat, Fish, Egg, and Plant Protein Foods. Nutrients 2016, 8, 446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- King, D.G.; Walker, M.; Campbell, M.D.; Breen, L.; Stevenson, E.J.; West, D.J. A small dose of whey protein co-ingested with mixed-macronutrient breakfast and lunch meals improves postprandial glycemia and suppresses appetite in men with type 2 diabetes: A randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2018, 107, 550–557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pal, S.; Radavelli-Bagatini, S. The effects of whey protein on cardiometabolic risk factors. Obes. Rev. 2013, 14, 324–343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hoefle, A.S.; Bangert, A.M.; Stamfort, A.; Gedrich, K.; Rist, M.J.; Lee, Y.M.; Skurk, T.; Daniel, H. Metabolic responses of healthy or prediabetic adults to bovine whey protein and sodium caseinate do not differ. J. Nutr. 2015, 145, 467–475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Frid, A.H.; Nilsson, M.; Holst, J.J.; Björck, I.M. Effect of whey on blood glucose and insulin responses to composite breakfast and lunch meals in type 2 diabetic subjects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2005, 82, 69–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Power, O.; Hallihan, A.; Jakeman, P. Human insulinotropic response to oral ingestion of native and hydrolysed whey protein. Amino Acids 2009, 37, 333–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sousa, G.T.; Lira, F.S.; Rosa, J.C.; de Oliveira, E.P.; Oyama, L.M.; Santos, R.V.; Pimentel, G.D. Dietary whey protein lessens several risk factors for metabolic diseases: A review. Lipids Health Dis. 2012, 11, 67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bjørnshave, A.; Hermansen, K. Effects of dairy protein and fat on the metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. Rev. Diabet Stud. 2014, 11, 153–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Grundy, S.M.; Brewer, H.B.; Cleeman, J.I.; Smith, S.C.; Lenfant, C. Definition of metabolic syndrome: Report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/American Heart Association conference on scientific issues related to definition. Circulation 2004, 109, 433–438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Amirani, E.; Milajerdi, A.; Reiner, Ž.; Mirzaei, H.; Mansournia, M.A.; Asemi, Z. Effects of whey protein on glycemic control and serum lipoproteins in patients with metabolic syndrome and related conditions: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. Lipids Health Dis. 2020, 19, 209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wirunsawanya, K.; Upala, S.; Jaruvongvanich, V.; Sanguankeo, A. Whey Protein Supplementation Improves Body Composition and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Overweight and Obese Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2018, 37, 60–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Badely, M.; Sepandi, M.; Samadi, M.; Parastouei, K.; Taghdir, M. The effect of whey protein on the components of metabolic syndrome in overweight and obese individuals; a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Metab. Syndr. 2019, 13, 3121–3131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sochol, K.M.; Johns, T.S.; Buttar, R.S.; Randhawa, L.; Sanchez, E.; Gal, M.; Lestrade, K.; Merzkani, M.; Abramowitz, M.K.; Mossavar-Rahmani, Y.; et al. The Effects of Dairy Intake on Insulin Resistance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials. Nutrients 2019, 11, 2237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Akhavan, T.; Luhovyy, B.L.; Brown, P.H.; Cho, C.E.; Anderson, G.H. Effect of premeal consumption of whey protein and its hydrolysate on food intake and postmeal glycemia and insulin responses in young adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010, 91, 966–975. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Pereira, M.A.; Jacobs, D.R.; Van Horn, L.; Slattery, M.L.; Kartashov, A.I.; Ludwig, D.S. Dairy consumption, obesity, and the insulin resistance syndrome in young adults: The CARDIA Study. JAMA 2002, 287, 2081–2089. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perrone, F.; da-Silva-Filho, A.C.; Adôrno, I.F.; Anabuki, N.T.; Leal, F.S.; Colombo, T.; da Silva, B.D.; Dock-Nascimento, D.B.; Damião, A.; de Aguilar-Nascimento, J.E. Effects of preoperative feeding with a whey protein plus carbohydrate drink on the acute phase response and insulin resistance. A randomized trial. Nutr. J. 2011, 10, 66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- van Loon, L.J.; Saris, W.H.; Verhagen, H.; Wagenmakers, A.J. Plasma insulin responses after ingestion of different amino acid or protein mixtures with carbohydrate. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000, 72, 96–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Newsholme, P.; Bender, K.; Kiely, A.; Brennan, L. Amino acid metabolism, insulin secretion and diabetes. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 2007, 35, 1180–1186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Potier, M.; Darcel, N.; Tomé, D. Protein, amino acids and the control of food intake. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 2009, 12, 54–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jain, S.K. L-cysteine supplementation as an adjuvant therapy for type-2 diabetes. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 2012, 90, 1061–1064. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lacroix, I.M.; Li-Chan, E.C. Inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP)-IV and α-glucosidase activities by pepsin-treated whey proteins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2013, 61, 7500–7506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Psallas, M.; Manes, C. Incretins in type 2 diabetes mellitus: Cardiovascular and anti-atherogenic effects beyond glucose lowering. Hippokratia 2012, 16, 100–105. [Google Scholar]
- Deacon, C.F. Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors in the treatment of type 2 diabetes: A comparative review. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2011, 13, 7–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Campbell, J.E.; Drucker, D.J. Pharmacology, physiology, and mechanisms of incretin hormone action. Cell Metab. 2013, 17, 819–837. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gunnerud, U.J.; Heinzle, C.; Holst, J.J.; Östman, E.M.; Björck, I.M. Effects of pre-meal drinks with protein and amino acids on glycemic and metabolic responses at a subsequent composite meal. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e44731. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mignone, L.E.; Wu, T.; Horowitz, M.; Rayner, C.K. Whey protein: The “whey” forward for treatment of type 2 diabetes. World J. Diabetes 2015, 6, 1274–1284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jakubowicz, D.; Froy, O. Biochemical and metabolic mechanisms by which dietary whey protein may combat obesity and Type 2 diabetes. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2013, 24, 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bowen, J.; Noakes, M.; Clifton, P.M. Appetite hormones and energy intake in obese men after consumption of fructose, glucose and whey protein beverages. Int. J. Obes. 2007, 31, 1696–1703. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wu, T.; Little, T.J.; Bound, M.J.; Borg, M.; Zhang, X.; Deacon, C.F.; Horowitz, M.; Jones, K.L.; Rayner, C.K. A Protein Preload Enhances the Glucose-Lowering Efficacy of Vildagliptin in Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2016, 39, 511–517. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Horner, K.; Drummond, E.; Brennan, L. Bioavailability of milk protein-derived bioactive peptides: A glycaemic management perspective. Nutr. Res. Rev. 2016, 29, 91–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Almario, R.U.; Buchan, W.M.; Rocke, D.M.; Karakas, S.E. Glucose-lowering effect of whey protein depends upon clinical characteristics of patients with type 2 diabetes. BMJ Open Diabetes Res. Care 2017, 5, e000420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Steiner, G.; Morita, S.; Vranic, M. Resistance to insulin but not to glucagon in lean human hypertriglyceridemics. Diabetes 1980, 29, 899–905. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baba, W.N.; Mudgil, P.; Kamal, H.; Kilari, B.P.; Gan, C.Y.; Maqsood, S. Identification and characterization of novel α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory peptides from camel whey proteins. J. Dairy Sci. 2021, 104, 1364–1377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Konrad, B.; Anna, D.; Marek, S.; Marta, P.; Aleksandra, Z.; Józefa, C. The Evaluation of Dipeptidyl Peptidase (DPP)-IV, α-Glucosidase and Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitory Activities of Whey Proteins Hydrolyzed with Serine Protease Isolated from Asian Pumpkin (Cucurbita ficifolia). Int. J. Pept. Res. Ther. 2014, 20, 483–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Marathe, C.S.; Rayner, C.K.; Jones, K.L.; Horowitz, M. Relationships between gastric emptying, postprandial glycemia, and incretin hormones. Diabetes Care 2013, 36, 1396–1405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Horowitz, M.; Edelbroek, M.A.; Wishart, J.M.; Straathof, J.W. Relationship between oral glucose tolerance and gastric emptying in normal healthy subjects. Diabetologia 1993, 36, 857–862. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rayner, C.K.; Samsom, M.; Jones, K.L.; Horowitz, M. Relationships of upper gastrointestinal motor and sensory function with glycemic control. Diabetes Care 2001, 24, 371–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kojecky, V.; Bernatek, J.; Horowitz, M.; Zemek, S.; Bakala, J.; Hep, A. Prevalence and determinants of delayed gastric emptying in hospitalised Type 2 diabetic patients. World J. Gastroenterol. 2008, 14, 1564–1569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nguyen, N.Q.; Fraser, R.J.; Bryant, L.K.; Chapman, M.J.; Wishart, J.; Holloway, R.H.; Butler, R.; Horowitz, M. The relationship between gastric emptying, plasma cholecystokinin, and peptide YY in critically ill patients. Crit. Care 2007, 11, R132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Karamanlis, A.; Chaikomin, R.; Doran, S.; Bellon, M.; Bartholomeusz, F.D.; Wishart, J.M.; Jones, K.L.; Horowitz, M.; Rayner, C.K. Effects of protein on glycemic and incretin responses and gastric emptying after oral glucose in healthy subjects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 86, 1364–1368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hall, W.L.; Millward, D.J.; Long, S.J.; Morgan, L.M. Casein and whey exert different effects on plasma amino acid profiles, gastrointestinal hormone secretion and appetite. Br. J. Nutr. 2003, 89, 239–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, J.; Stevens, J.E.; Cukier, K.; Maddox, A.F.; Wishart, J.M.; Jones, K.L.; Clifton, P.M.; Horowitz, M.; Rayner, C.K. Effects of a protein preload on gastric emptying, glycemia, and gut hormones after a carbohydrate meal in diet-controlled type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009, 32, 1600–1602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Veldhorst, M.; Smeets, A.; Soenen, S.; Hochstenbach-Waelen, A.; Hursel, R.; Diepvens, K.; Lejeune, M.; Luscombe-Marsh, N.; Westerterp-Plantenga, M. Protein-induced satiety: Effects and mechanisms of different proteins. Physiol. Behav. 2008, 94, 300–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fromentin, G.; Darcel, N.; Chaumontet, C.; Marsset-Baglieri, A.; Nadkarni, N.; Tomé, D. Peripheral and central mechanisms involved in the control of food intake by dietary amino acids and proteins. Nutr. Res. Rev. 2012, 25, 29–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Anderson, G.H.; Tecimer, S.N.; Shah, D.; Zafar, T.A. Protein source, quantity, and time of consumption determine the effect of proteins on short-term food intake in young men. J. Nutr. 2004, 134, 3011–3015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Uhe, A.M.; Collier, G.R.; O’Dea, K. A comparison of the effects of beef, chicken and fish protein on satiety and amino acid profiles in lean male subjects. J. Nutr. 1992, 122, 467–472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tahavorgar, A.; Vafa, M.; Shidfar, F.; Gohari, M.; Heydari, I. Whey protein preloads are more beneficial than soy protein preloads in regulating appetite, calorie intake, anthropometry, and body composition of overweight and obese men. Nutr. Res. 2014, 34, 856–861. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, J.W.; Tong, X.; Wan, Z.; Wang, Y.; Qin, L.Q.; Szeto, I.M. Effect of whey protein on blood lipid profiles: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2016, 70, 879–885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mohammadi-Sartang, M.; Bellissimo, N.; Totosy de Zepetnek, J.O.; Brett, N.R.; Mazloomi, S.M.; Fararouie, M.; Bedeltavana, A.; Famouri, M.; Mazloom, Z. The effect of daily fortified yogurt consumption on weight loss in adults with metabolic syndrome: A 10-week randomized controlled trial. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 2018, 28, 565–574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Baer, D.J.; Stote, K.S.; Paul, D.R.; Harris, G.K.; Rumpler, W.V.; Clevidence, B.A. Whey protein but not soy protein supplementation alters body weight and composition in free-living overweight and obese adults. J. Nutr. 2011, 141, 1489–1494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bortolotti, M.; Maiolo, E.; Corazza, M.; Van Dijke, E.; Schneiter, P.; Boss, A.; Carrel, G.; Giusti, V.; Lê, K.A.; Quo Chong, D.G.; et al. Effects of a whey protein supplementation on intrahepatocellular lipids in obese female patients. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 30, 494–498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Simonson, M.; Boirie, Y.; Guillet, C. Protein, amino acids and obesity treatment. Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord. 2020, 21, 341–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roberge, J.B.; Van Hulst, A.; Barnett, T.A.; Drapeau, V.; Benedetti, A.; Tremblay, A.; Henderson, M. Lifestyle Habits, Dietary Factors, and the Metabolically Unhealthy Obese Phenotype in Youth. J. Pediatr. 2019, 204, 46–52.e1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, H.; Kim, M.; Kojima, N.; Fujino, K.; Hosoi, E.; Kobayashi, H.; Somekawa, S.; Niki, Y.; Yamashiro, Y.; Yoshida, H. Exercise and Nutritional Supplementation on Community-Dwelling Elderly Japanese Women With Sarcopenic Obesity: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc. 2016, 17, 1011–1019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Eneli, I.; Xu, J.; Tindall, A.; Watowicz, R.; Worthington, J.; Tanner, K.; Pratt, K.; Walston, M. Using a Revised Protein-Sparing Modified Fast (rPSMF) for Children and Adolescents with Severe Obesity: A Pilot Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 3061. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Astrup, A.; Raben, A.; Geiker, N. The role of higher protein diets in weight control and obesity-related comorbidities. Int. J. Obes. 2015, 39, 721–726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Calcagno, M.; Kahleova, H.; Alwarith, J.; Burgess, N.N.; Flores, R.A.; Busta, M.L.; Barnard, N.D. The Thermic Effect of Food: A Review. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2019, 38, 547–551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ravn, A.M.; Gregersen, N.T.; Christensen, R.; Rasmussen, L.G.; Hels, O.; Belza, A.; Raben, A.; Larsen, T.M.; Toubro, S.; Astrup, A. Thermic effect of a meal and appetite in adults: An individual participant data meta-analysis of meal-test trials. Food Nutr. Res 2013, 57, 19676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tappy, L. Thermic effect of food and sympathetic nervous system activity in humans. Reprod. Nutr. Dev. 1996, 36, 391–397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Leidy, H.J.; Clifton, P.M.; Astrup, A.; Wycherley, T.P.; Westerterp-Plantenga, M.S.; Luscombe-Marsh, N.D.; Woods, S.C.; Mattes, R.D. The role of protein in weight loss and maintenance. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2015, 101, 1320S–1329S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Devries, M.C.; Phillips, S.M. Supplemental protein in support of muscle mass and health: Advantage whey. J. Food Sci. 2015, 80 (Suppl. S1), A8–A15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, G.I.; Commean, P.K.; Reeds, D.N.; Klein, S.; Mittendorfer, B. Effect of Protein Supplementation During Diet-Induced Weight Loss on Muscle Mass and Strength: A Randomized Controlled Study. Obesity 2018, 26, 854–861. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Beavers, K.M.; Nesbit, B.A.; Kiel, J.R.; Sheedy, J.L.; Arterburn, L.M.; Collins, A.E.; Ford, S.A.; Henderson, R.M.; Coleman, C.D.; Beavers, D.P. Effect of an Energy-Restricted, Nutritionally Complete, Higher Protein Meal Plan on Body Composition and Mobility in Older Adults With Obesity: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 2019, 74, 929–935. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Merra, G.; Miranda, R.; Barrucco, S.; Gualtieri, P.; Mazza, M.; Moriconi, E.; Marchetti, M.; Chang, T.F.; De Lorenzo, A.; Di Renzo, L. Very-low-calorie ketogenic diet with aminoacid supplement versus very low restricted-calorie diet for preserving muscle mass during weight loss: A pilot double-blind study. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci. 2016, 20, 2613–2621. [Google Scholar]
- Leidy, H.J.; Carnell, N.S.; Mattes, R.D.; Campbell, W.W. Higher protein intake preserves lean mass and satiety with weight loss in pre-obese and obese women. Obesity 2007, 15, 421–429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kim, J.E.; O’Connor, L.E.; Sands, L.P.; Slebodnik, M.B.; Campbell, W.W. Effects of dietary protein intake on body composition changes after weight loss in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr. Rev. 2016, 74, 210–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Layman, D.K.; Evans, E.; Baum, J.I.; Seyler, J.; Erickson, D.J.; Boileau, R.A. Dietary protein and exercise have additive effects on body composition during weight loss in adult women. J. Nutr. 2005, 135, 1903–1910. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Soenen, S.; Martens, E.A.; Hochstenbach-Waelen, A.; Lemmens, S.G.; Westerterp-Plantenga, M.S. Normal protein intake is required for body weight loss and weight maintenance, and elevated protein intake for additional preservation of resting energy expenditure and fat free mass. J. Nutr. 2013, 143, 591–596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Barrios, V.; Escobar, C. Diabetes and hypertension. What is new. Minerva Cardioangiol. 2009, 57, 705–722. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Huth, P.J.; DiRienzo, D.B.; Miller, G.D. Major scientific advances with dairy foods in nutrition and health. J. Dairy Sci. 2006, 89, 1207–1221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- FitzGerald, R.J.; Murray, B.A.; Walsh, D.J. Hypotensive peptides from milk proteins. J. Nutr. 2004, 134, 980S–988S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yoshida, K.; Hirokawa, J.; Tagami, S.; Kawakami, Y.; Urata, Y.; Kondo, T. Weakened cellular scavenging activity against oxidative stress in diabetes mellitus: Regulation of glutathione synthesis and efflux. Diabetologia 1995, 38, 201–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thornalley, P.J.; McLellan, A.C.; Lo, T.W.; Benn, J.; Sönksen, P.H. Negative association between erythrocyte reduced glutathione concentration and diabetic complications. Clin. Sci. 1996, 91, 575–582. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Samiec, P.S.; Drews-Botsch, C.; Flagg, E.W.; Kurtz, J.C.; Sternberg, P.; Reed, R.L.; Jones, D.P. Glutathione in human plasma: Decline in association with aging, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetes. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 1998, 24, 699–704. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Arnalich, F.; Hernanz, A.; López-Maderuelo, D.; De la Fuente, M.; Arnalich, F.M.; Andres-Mateos, E.; Fernández-Capitán, C.; Montiel, C. Intracellular glutathione deficiency is associated with enhanced nuclear factor-kappaB activation in older non-insulin dependent diabetic patients. Free Radic. Res. 2001, 35, 873–884. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kanikarla-Marie, P.; Micinski, D.; Jain, S.K. Hyperglycemia (high-glucose) decreases L-cysteine and glutathione levels in cultured monocytes and blood of Zucker diabetic rats. Mol. Cell Biochem. 2019, 459, 151–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Habib, S.A.; Saad, E.A.; Elsharkawy, A.A.; Attia, Z.R. Pro-inflammatory adipocytokines, oxidative stress, insulin, Zn and Cu: Interrelations with obesity in Egyptian non-diabetic obese children and adolescents. Adv. Med. Sci. 2015, 60, 179–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Uzun, H.; Konukoglu, D.; Gelisgen, R.; Zengin, K.; Taskin, M. Plasma protein carbonyl and thiol stress before and after laparoscopic gastric banding in morbidly obese patients. Obes. Surg. 2007, 17, 1367–1373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zamora-Mendoza, R.; Rosas-Vargas, H.; Ramos-Cervantes, M.; Garcia-Zuniga, P.; Perez-Lorenzana, H.; Mendoza-Lorenzo, P.; Perez-Ortiz, A.C.; Estrada-Mena, F.J.; Miliar-Garcia, A.; Lara-Padilla, E.; et al. Dysregulation of mitochondrial function and biogenesis modulators in adipose tissue of obese children. Int. J. Obes. 2018, 42, 618–624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parsanathan, R.; Jain, S.K. Glutathione deficiency induces epigenetic alterations of vitamin D metabolism genes in the livers of high-fat diet-fed obese mice. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 14784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Andrich, D.E.; Melbouci, L.; Ou, Y.; Auclair, N.; Mercier, J.; Grenier, J.C.; Lira, F.S.; Barreiro, L.B.; Danialou, G.; Comtois, A.S.; et al. A Short-Term High-Fat Diet Alters Glutathione Levels and IL-6 Gene Expression in Oxidative Skeletal Muscles of Young Rats. Front. Physiol. 2019, 10, 372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Vatani, D.S.; Golzar., F.A.K. Changes in antioxidant status and cardiovascular risk factors of overweight young men after six weeks supplementation of whey protein isolate and resistance training. Appetite 2012, 59, 673–678. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nieman, K.M.; Anderson, B.D.; Cifelli, C.J. The Effects of Dairy Product and Dairy Protein Intake on Inflammation: A Systematic Review of the Literature. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2021, 40, 571–582. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ballard, K.D.; Bruno, R.S.; Seip, R.L.; Quann, E.E.; Volk, B.M.; Freidenreich, D.J.; Kawiecki, D.M.; Kupchak, B.R.; Chung, M.Y.; Kraemer, W.J.; et al. Acute ingestion of a novel whey-derived peptide improves vascular endothelial responses in healthy individuals: A randomized, placebo controlled trial. Nutr. J. 2009, 8, 34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bordoni, A.; Danesi, F.; Dardevet, D.; Dupont, D.; Fernandez, A.S.; Gille, D.; Nunes Dos Santos, C.; Pinto, P.; Re, R.; Rémond, D.; et al. Dairy products and inflammation: A review of the clinical evidence. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2017, 57, 2497–2525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Feng, Y.; Wang, Y.; Feng, Q.; Song, X.; Wang, L.; Sun, L. Whey protein preloading can alleviate stress adaptation disorder and improve hyperglycemia in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Gynecol. Endocrinol. 2021, 37, 753–757. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kuhara, T.; Tanaka, A.; Yamauchi, K.; Iwatsuki, K. Bovine lactoferrin ingestion protects against inflammation via IL-11 induction in the small intestine of mice with hepatitis. Br. J. Nutr. 2014, 111, 1801–1810. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Benjamin, J.; Makharia, G.; Ahuja, V.; Anand Rajan, K.D.; Kalaivani, M.; Gupta, S.D.; Joshi, Y.K. Glutamine and whey protein improve intestinal permeability and morphology in patients with Crohn’s disease: A randomized controlled trial. Dig. Dis. Sci. 2012, 57, 1000–1012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brimelow, R.E.; West, N.P.; Williams, L.T.; Cripps, A.W.; Cox, A.J. A role for whey-derived lactoferrin and immunoglobulins in the attenuation of obesity-related inflammation and disease. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2017, 57, 1593–1602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Y.; Østergaard, M.V.; Jiang, P.; Chatterton, D.E.; Thymann, T.; Kvistgaard, A.S.; Sangild, P.T. Whey protein processing influences formula-induced gut maturation in preterm pigs. J. Nutr. 2013, 143, 1934–1942. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Katayama, K.; Matsuno, T.; Waritani, T.; Terato, K.; Shionoya, H. Supplemental treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with natural milk antibodies against enteromicrobes and their toxins: Results of an open-labelled pilot study. Nutr. J. 2011, 10, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nouri, M.; Pourghassem Gargari, B.; Tajfar, P.; Tarighat-Esfanjani, A. A systematic review of whey protein supplementation effects on human glycemic control: A mechanistic insight. Diabetes Metab. Syndr. 2022, 16, 102540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oberoi, A.; Giezenaar, C.; Rigda, R.S.; Lange, K.; Horowitz, M.; Jones, K.L.; Chapman, I.; Soenen, S. Comparative Effects of Co-Ingesting Whey Protein and Glucose Alone and Combined on Blood Glucose, Plasma Insulin and Glucagon Concentrations in Younger and Older Men. Nutrients 2022, 14, 3111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Giglio, B.M.; Lobo, P.C.B.; Pimentel, G.D. Effects of whey protein supplementation on adiposity, body weight, and glycemic parameters: A synthesis of evidence. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 2023, 33, 258–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fekete, Á.A.; Givens, D.I.; Lovegrove, J.A. Can milk proteins be a useful tool in the management of cardiometabolic health? An updated review of human intervention trials. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2016, 75, 328–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pal, S.; Ellis, V.; Dhaliwal, S. Effects of whey protein isolate on body composition, lipids, insulin and glucose in overweight and obese individuals. Br. J. Nutr. 2010, 104, 716–723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Watson, L.E.; Phillips, L.K.; Wu, T.; Bound, M.J.; Checklin, H.L.; Grivell, J.; Jones, K.L.; Clifton, P.M.; Horowitz, M.; Rayner, C.K. A whey/guar "preload" improves postprandial glycaemia and glycated haemoglobin levels in type 2 diabetes: A 12-week, single-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2019, 21, 930–938. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ma, J.; Jesudason, D.R.; Stevens, J.E.; Keogh, J.B.; Jones, K.L.; Clifton, P.M.; Horowitz, M.; Rayner, C.K. Sustained effects of a protein ’preload’ on glycaemia and gastric emptying over 4 weeks in patients with type 2 diabetes: A randomized clinical trial. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2015, 108, e31–e34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Havea, P.; Singh, H.; Creamer, L.K.; Campanella, O.H. Electrophoretic characterization of the protein products formed during heat treatment of whey protein concentrate solutions. J. Dairy Sci. 1998, 65, 79–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Havea, P.; Singh, H.; Creamer, L.K. Characterization of heat-induced aggregates of beta-lactoglobulin, alpha-lactalbumin and bovine serum albumin in a whey protein concentrate environment. J. Dairy Res. 2001, 68, 483–497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schokker, E.P.; Singh, H.; Pinder, D.N.; Creamer, L.K. Heat-induced aggregation of β-lactoglobulin AB at pH 2.5 as influenced by ionic strength and protein concentration. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2000, 10, 233–240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Edwards, P.J.B.; Jameson, G.B.; Palmano, K.P.; Creamer, L.K. Heat-resistant structural features of bovine β -lactoglobulin A revealed by NMR H/D exchange observations. Int. Dairy J. 2002, 12, 331–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dannenberg, F.; Kessler, H.G. Reaction kinetics of the denaturation of whey proteins in milk. J. Food Sci. 1988, 53, 258–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oldfield, D.J.; Singh, H.; Taylor, M.W.; Pearce, K.N. Kinetics of denaturation and aggregation of whey proteins in skim milk heated in an ultra-high temperature (UHT) pilot plant. Int. Dairy J. 1998, 8, 311–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Patel, H.A.; Singh, H.; Anema, S.G.; Creamer, L.K. Effects of heat and high-hydrostatic pressure treatments on the aggregation of whey proteins in whey protein concentrate solutions. Food New Zealand 2004, 4, 29–35. [Google Scholar]
- Meltretter, J.; Wüst, J.; Pischetsrieder, M. Comprehensive analysis of nonenzymatic post-translational β-lactoglobulin modifications in processed milk by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2013, 61, 6971–6981. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meltretter, J.; Becker, C.M.; Pischetsrieder, M. Identification and site-specific relative quantification of beta-lactoglobulin modifications in heated milk and dairy products. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 5165–5171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baxter, J.H.; Lai, C.S.; Phillips, R.R.; Dowlati, L.; Chio, J.J.; Luebbers, S.T.; Dimler, S.R.; Johns, P.W. Direct determination of methionine sulfoxide in milk proteins by enzyme hydrolysis/high-performance liquid chromatography. J. Chromatogr. A 2007, 1157, 10–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Papakonstantinou, E.; Oikonomou, C.; Nychas, G.; Dimitriadis, G.D. Effects of Diet, Lifestyle, Chrononutrition and Alternative Dietary Interventions on Postprandial Glycemia and Insulin Resistance. Nutrients 2022, 14, 823. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, M.; Fan, Y.; Zhang, X.; Hou, W.; Tang, Z. Fruit and vegetable intake and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. BMJ Open 2014, 4, e005497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Li, S.; Miao, S.; Huang, Y.; Liu, Z.; Tian, H.; Yin, X.; Tang, W.; Steffen, L.M.; Xi, B. Fruit intake decreases risk of incident type 2 diabetes: An updated meta-analysis. Endocrine 2015, 48, 454–460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xiao, J.B.; Högger, P. Dietary polyphenols and type 2 diabetes: Current insights and future perspectives. Curr. Med. Chem. 2015, 22, 23–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Magrone, T.; Perez de Heredia, F.; Jirillo, E.; Morabito, G.; Marcos, A.; Serafini, M. Functional foods and nutraceuticals as therapeutic tools for the treatment of diet-related diseases. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 2013, 91, 387–396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ajebli, M.; Khan, H.; Eddouks, M. Natural Alkaloids and Diabetes Mellitus: A Review. Endocr. Metab. Immune Disord. Drug Targets 2021, 21, 111–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nash, R.J.; Kato, A.; Yu, C.Y.; Fleet, G.W. Iminosugars as therapeutic agents: Recent advances and promising trends. Future Med. Chem. 2011, 3, 1513–1521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tseng, P.S.; Ande, C.; Moremen, K.W.; Crich, D. Influence of Side Chain Conformation on the Activity of Glycosidase Inhibitors. Angew Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 2023, 62, e202217809. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rajasekaran, P.; Ande, C.; Vankar, Y.D. Synthesis of (5, 6 & 6, 6)-oxa-oxa annulated sugars as glycosidase inhibitors from 2-formyl galactal using iodocyclization as a key step. Arkivoc 2022, 2022, 5–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Esposito, A.; D’Alonzo, D.; Fenza, M.; Gregorio, E.; Tamanini, A.; Lippi, G.; Dechecchi, M.C.; Guaragna, A. Synthesis and Therapeutic Applications of Iminosugars in Cystic Fibrosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 3353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kerru, N.; Singh-Pillay, A.; Awolade, P.; Singh, P. Current anti-diabetic agents and their molecular targets: A review. Eur. J. Med. Chem. 2018, 152, 436–488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Artasensi, A.; Pedretti, A.; Vistoli, G.; Fumagalli, L. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Review of Multi-Target Drugs. Molecules 2020, 25, 1987. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McGovern, A.; Tippu, Z.; Hinton, W.; Munro, N.; Whyte, M.; de Lusignan, S. Comparison of medication adherence and persistence in type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2018, 20, 1040–1043. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martin, W.F.; Armstrong, L.E.; Rodriguez, N.R. Dietary protein intake and renal function. Nutr. Metab. 2005, 2, 25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Juraschek, S.P.; Appel, L.J.; Anderson, C.A.; Miller, E.R. Effect of a high-protein diet on kidney function in healthy adults: Results from the OmniHeart trial. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2013, 61, 547–554. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Friedman, A.N. High-protein diets: Potential effects on the kidney in renal health and disease. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2004, 44, 950–962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ma, Q.; Li, Y.; Li, P.; Wang, M.; Wang, J.; Tang, Z.; Wang, T.; Luo, L.; Wang, C.; Wang, T.; et al. Research progress in the relationship between type 2 diabetes mellitus and intestinal flora. Biomed Pharm. 2019, 117, 109138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, F.; Zhao, T.; Wang, W.; Dai, Q.; Ma, X. Will intestinal flora therapy become a new target in type-2 diabetes mellitus? A review based on 13 clinical trials. Nutr. Hosp. 2022, 39, 425–433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sánchez-Moya, T.; López-Nicolás, R.; Planes, D.; González-Bermúdez, C.A.; Ros-Berruezo, G.; Frontela-Saseta, C. In vitro modulation of gut microbiota by whey protein to preserve intestinal health. Food Funct. 2017, 8, 3053–3063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Brownlee, M. The Pathobiology of Diabetic Complications: A Unifying Mechanism. Diabetes 2005, 54, 1615–1625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Lesgards, J.-F. Benefits of Whey Proteins on Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Parameters and Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases. Nutrients 2023, 15, 1294. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15051294
Lesgards J-F. Benefits of Whey Proteins on Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Parameters and Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases. Nutrients. 2023; 15(5):1294. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15051294
Chicago/Turabian StyleLesgards, Jean-François. 2023. "Benefits of Whey Proteins on Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Parameters and Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases" Nutrients 15, no. 5: 1294. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15051294
APA StyleLesgards, J. -F. (2023). Benefits of Whey Proteins on Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Parameters and Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases. Nutrients, 15(5), 1294. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15051294