Plant-Based Nutrition: Exploring Health Benefits for Atherosclerosis, Chronic Diseases, and Metabolic Syndrome—A Comprehensive Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Plant-Based Diet and Atherosclerosis
2.1. Brief Summary of the Pathophysiology and Confounding Outcomes
2.2. Saturated and Unsaturated Fat
2.3. Trimethylamine N-Oxide and Gut Microbiota
2.4. Plant-Based Diet, LDL Cholesterol, TMAO, and Atherosclerotic Risk
2.5. Endothelial Vascular Function
2.6. Short-Chain Fatty Acids, Gut Microbiota, and Atheroma Formation
2.7. Fermented Plant-Food and Atherosclerosis
2.8. Bioactive Compounds
3. A Plant-Based Diet and Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases
3.1. Diabetes
3.2. Hypertension
3.3. Dyslipidemia
4. A Plant-Based Diet and Metabolic Syndrome
4.1. Insulin Resistance (Fasting Blood Sugar)
4.2. Visceral Obesity and Waist Circumference
4.3. High-Blood Pressure
4.4. Hypertriglyceridemia
4.5. Dyslipidemia (Low HDL Cholesterol)
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AMPK | AMP-activated protein kinase |
DHA | docosahexaenoic acid |
EPA | eicosapentaenoic acid |
FMD | flow-mediated dilatation |
HDL | high-density lipoprotein |
LDL | low-density lipoprotein |
MetS | metabolic syndrome |
PBD | plant-based diet |
PDI | plant-based diet index |
PUFAs | polyunsaturated fatty acids |
TMAO | trimethylamine N-oxide |
SCFAs | short-chain fatty acids |
TNF-α | tumor necrosis factor-alpha |
ABC | ATP-binding cassette |
ASCVD | atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease |
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Study | Analysis | Resume of Main Results Found | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Apo-B | LDL-c | oxLDL | HDL-c | H/L-cr | TG | CVD/CHD | PROINF | SFA | UFA | FCF | ||
[59] | EVOND vs. WD | x | ↓ | ↓ | x | x | ↓ | x | x | x | x | ↓ |
[60] | HUF vs. HSF | x | ↓ | x | = | x | x | x | x | ↓ | ↑ | x |
[61] | Reducing SFA intake | x | ↓ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[65] | SFA vs. RO (both rich fats) | x | ↑ | x | x | x | ↑ | ↑ | x | ↑ | x | x |
[69] | Peanuts and walnuts consumption | x | x | x | x | x | x | ↓ | x | x | x | x |
[71] | WW vs. WO | x | ↓ | x | x | x | ↓ | x | x | x | x | x |
[76] | Changing SFA or CARB by UFA | x | ↓ | x | = | ↑ | ↓ | ↓ | x | x | x | x |
[77] | LSAFA vs. HSAFA | = | = | x | ↓ | ↓ | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x |
HUFA vs. LSAFA or HSAFA | ↓ | ↓ | x | ↓ or = | ↑ | ↓ | x | x | x | x | x | |
[79] | Chia vs. Control | x | = | x | ↑ | x | = | x | x | x | x | x |
[104] | PBD w/EGGs vs. wo/EGGs | x | = | x | ↑ | = | = | x | x | x | x | x |
[119] | High SFA diet vs. PUFA diet | ↑ | ↑ | x | ↑ | x | ↑ | x | ↑ | x | x | x |
[120] | Walnuts replacing MUFAs | ↓ | ↓ | x | = | ↑ | = | ↓ | x | x | x | |
[121] | Walnuts-enriched diet vs. Control | x | = | x | = | x | = | x | x | x | x | x |
[125] | Nitrate-rich beetroot juice | x | x | = | x | x | x | ↓ | = | x | x | x |
[152] | Higher vs. Lower fiber intake | x | x | x | x | x | x | ↓ | x | x | x | x |
[162] | Whole-grain cereal vs. Control | x | x | x | x | x | ↓ | x | x | x | x | x |
[166] | Chungtaejeon (Fermented Tea) | x | x | x | x | x | x | ↓ | ↓ | x | x | x |
[168] | β-glucans intake | x | ↓ | x | = | x | = | ↓ | ↓ | x | x | x |
[174] | Berries consumption | = | ↓ | x | ↑ | x | ↓ | ↓ | ↓ | x | x | x |
[177] | Mulberry leaf polyphenols effects | x | x | ↓ | x | x | x | x | ↓ | x | x | x |
Study | Analysis | Resume of Main Results Found | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
IR/IS | DB * | GI | VF | TG | WC | BW | BMI | BP | HDL | LDL | ||
[185] | Flavonoids | x | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[188] | Lifelong PBD adherence | x | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[191] | PBD | x | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[197] | Polyphenols | ↑ | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[202] | Genistein | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[203] | Flavan-3-ols and isoflavones | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[204] | Genistein | ↑ | ↑ | x | x | ↓ | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[205] | PBD | x | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[206] | PBD | ↑ | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[209] | PBD | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[211] | PBD | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ↑ | x | x |
[212] | PBD (results observed only in males) | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ↑ | x | x |
[213,214] | PBD | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ↑ | x | x |
[215] | Diet change to PBD | ↑ | x | = | x | = | ↓ | ↓ | ↑ | ↓ | ↓ | |
[216] | Berries anthocyanin (women) | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ↑ | x | x |
[229] | Healthy PBD vs. Unhealthy PBD | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ↑ | x | x |
[232] | Vegan diet | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ↓ |
[234] | PBD | x | x | x | x | ↓ | x | x | x | x | x | ↓ |
[244] | Vegans vs. Lacto-vegetarians | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ↓ |
[245] | Walnut’s intake (results men > women) | x | x | x | x | ↓ | x | x | x | x | x | |
[248] | Quinoa bar consumption (30 days) | x | x | x | x | ↓ | x | x | x | x | x | ↓ |
[250] | Blueberries | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[253] | Berberine (plant-derived compound) | ↑ | x | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[254,255,256] | Polyphenols | ↑ | x | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[257] | Strawberry and cranberry polyphenols | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[258] | Grape polyphenols | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[259] | Fruits and vegetables | x | x | x | ↓ | ↓ | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[260] | Pesco-vegetarian and vegetarians | x | x | x | x | x | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | x | x | x |
[261] | PBD adherence | x | x | x | x | x | ↑ | x | ↑ | x | x | x |
[262] | PBD adherence and high-flavonoid intake | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ↑ | x | x |
[263] | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | = | x | x | |
[264] | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ↑ | x | x | |
[246] | PBD adherence | x | x | x | x | ↑ | x | x | x | x | ↓ | x |
[265] | PBD adherence | x | x | x | x | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x |
[266] | Vegetarians vs. omnivores | x | x | x | x | ↓ | x | x | x | ↓ | x | ↓ |
[267] | PBD adherence | x | x | x | x | ↓ | x | x | x | x | ↓ | ↓ |
[268] | Tomato | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ↑ | x |
[269] | Pakistani and American almonds | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ↑ | x |
[270] | Strawberry anthocyanin | ↑ | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
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Peña-Jorquera, H.; Cid-Jofré, V.; Landaeta-Díaz, L.; Petermann-Rocha, F.; Martorell, M.; Zbinden-Foncea, H.; Ferrari, G.; Jorquera-Aguilera, C.; Cristi-Montero, C. Plant-Based Nutrition: Exploring Health Benefits for Atherosclerosis, Chronic Diseases, and Metabolic Syndrome—A Comprehensive Review. Nutrients 2023, 15, 3244. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15143244
Peña-Jorquera H, Cid-Jofré V, Landaeta-Díaz L, Petermann-Rocha F, Martorell M, Zbinden-Foncea H, Ferrari G, Jorquera-Aguilera C, Cristi-Montero C. Plant-Based Nutrition: Exploring Health Benefits for Atherosclerosis, Chronic Diseases, and Metabolic Syndrome—A Comprehensive Review. Nutrients. 2023; 15(14):3244. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15143244
Chicago/Turabian StylePeña-Jorquera, Humberto, Valeska Cid-Jofré, Leslie Landaeta-Díaz, Fanny Petermann-Rocha, Miquel Martorell, Hermann Zbinden-Foncea, Gerson Ferrari, Carlos Jorquera-Aguilera, and Carlos Cristi-Montero. 2023. "Plant-Based Nutrition: Exploring Health Benefits for Atherosclerosis, Chronic Diseases, and Metabolic Syndrome—A Comprehensive Review" Nutrients 15, no. 14: 3244. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15143244