Physiological Benefits and Performance of Sea Water Ingestion for Athletes in Endurance Events: A Systematic Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Search Strategy
2.2. Criteria Used for Selection
2.3. Reliability and Extraction of Data
2.4. Evaluation of the Validity and Reliability of the Evidence
3. Results
3.1. Selected Studies
3.1.1. Deep-Ocean Mineral Water
3.1.2. Deep Mineral Water
3.1.3. Sea Water
4. Discussion
Limitations and Strength
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Database | Search Strategy | Limits | Filters |
---|---|---|---|
Web of Science | (ALL (deep sea water AND endurance exercise OR deep-sea water AND sweating OR deep-sea water AND sweating OR deep sea mineral water AND endurance exercise OR deep sea mineral water AND sweating OR deep sea mineral water AND hydration)) | Publication date, 2000–2022, English language, Article, Search strategy (Topic) | 54 items filtered |
PubMed | (Deep sea water OR deep sea mineral water) AND (endurance exercise OR sweating OR hydration) | Publication date, 1 January 2000–31 July 2022, Humans, Adults: 18–50 years, English language, Search strategy (All Fields) | 97 items filtered |
Scopus | TITLE-ABS-KEY (deep AND sea AND water AND hydration) OR (deep AND sea AND water AND hydration AND endurance AND exercise) OR (deep AND sea AND water AND hydration AND endurance AND exercise AND barrier) OR (deep AND sea AND water AND hydration AND endurance AND exercise) AND LANGUAGE (English) AND (PUBYEAR > 2000) | Publication date, 2000–2022, English language, Article or review, Search strategy (TITLE-ABS-KEY) | 407 items filtered |
Criteriums According to Kind of Study | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Authors | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | Percentage Reached | Quality Level |
Hou et al., 2013 [12] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 100% | HQ |
Stasiule et al., 2014 [11] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 85% | HQ |
Keen et al., 2016 [10] | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 75% | HQ | |||||
Wei et al., 2017 [32] | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 92% | HQ |
Pérez-Turpin et al., 2017 [33] | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 77% | HQ |
Harris et al., 2019 [34] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 100% | HQ |
Higgins et al., 2019 [35] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 92% | HQ |
González Acevedo et al., 2022 [36] | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 76% | HQ |
First Author, Year of Publication | Country | Type of Study | Aim | Sample | Study Design | Results | Composition of the Seawater |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hou et al., 2013 [12] | Taiwan | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study | DSW on recovery time | 12 healthy, male volunteers. 24 ± 0.8 years. | The study was to evaluate the effect of DOM on the recovery time at 30 °C. |
| Following the two filtration procedures, molecules larger than 1.5 kilodalton were removed. As a means of masking the taste difference between DOM and placebo, the same amounts of sucrose, artificial flavors, citrate, citrus juice, calcium lactate, potassium chloride, vitamin C, and mixed amino acids were added to both. |
Stasiule et al., 2014 [11] | Lithuania | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study | The effect of DMW on the recovery | 9 healthy, physically active, women. 24.0 ± 3.7 years. | Aerobic capacity (VO2 max) and peak lower-body muscle capacity were the measures selected for assessing the degree of recovery. VO2 max was measured using the ramp exercise test. |
| Na (76 mg L−1), K (19 mg L−1), Ca (220 mg L−1), Mg (73 mg L−1), Cl (46 mg L−1), SO4 (874 mg L−1), F (0.3 mg L−1), Cu (0.0054 mg L−1), Fe (1.2326 mg L−1), Mn (0.0163 mg L−1), Cr (0.0025 mg L−1) P (0.5434 mg L−1), B (0.4175 mg L−1), and Zn (0.0124 mg L−1) |
Keen et al., 2016 [10] | Arizona | Well-conditioned student-athletes study | DSW on rehydration | Eight student-athletes. Three experimental groups. 23.0 ± 1.2 years. | Subjects were exposed to an exercise-challenge under warm conditions. Body mass measurements were taken prior to exercise and then at 15 min intervals throughout the exercise trial and during rehydration. At each interval also, stimulated saliva was collected, and salivary osmolality was measured. |
| Na (85 mg L−1), K (4 mg L−1), Ca (1.4 mg L−1), Mg (4.3 mg L−1), Cl (150 mg L−1), B (0.65 mg L−1), Bromide (540 µg L−1), and Cr (2.2 µg L−1) |
Wei et al., 2016 [32] | Taiwan | Double-blind placebo-controlled crossover study | DOM supplementation on the cerebral hemodynamic response | 9 middle-aged men and 12 young men. 46.8 ± 1.4, 21.2 ± 0.4 years, respectively | The counter-balanced trials of DOM and placebo were separated by a 2-week washout period. DOM and placebo were orally supplemented in drinks before, during, and after cycling exercise. Cerebral hemodynamic response was measured during cycling at 75% VO2 max using near-infrared spectroscopy. |
| After this two-filtration procedure, molecules larger than 1.5 kilodalton were removed. For the purpose of masking the taste difference between DOM and placebo, the same amount of erythritol (3%) was added to each drink. |
Harris et al., 2019 [34] | Arizona | Counterbalanced, crossover study | DOM supplementation on muscle performance recovery | 17 participants. 20–25 years. | A dehydrating exercise protocol under heat stress until achieving 3% body mass loss. Participants rehydrated with either DOM water (Deep), mountain spring water (Spring), or a carbohydrate-based sports drink (Sports) at a volume equal to the volume of fluid loss. |
| Na (85 mg L−1), K (4 mg L−1), Ca (1.4 mg L−1), Mg (4.3 mg L−1), Cl (150 mg L−1), B (0.65 mg L−1), Bromide (540 µg L−1), and Cr (2.2 µg L−1) |
González Acevedo et al., 2022 [36] | Spain | CRS | SW and recovery | 15 triathletes. 38.8 ± 5.6 years | Fifteen trained male triathletes randomly performed 3 triathlons, one of them consuming SW, the other one consuming tap water-hydration at libitum, and the last one with isocaloric placebo |
| Electrolytes were supplied in the amount of 27.297 mg L−1 Na, 0.465 mg L−1 K, 19.5 mg L−1 Mg, and 1.377 mg L−1 Ca. |
First Author, Year of Publication | Country | Type of Study | Aim | Sample | Study Design | Results | Composition of the Seawater |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hou et al., 2013 [12] | Taiwan | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study | DSW on performance | 12 healthy, male volunteers. 24 ± 0.8 years | The study was to evaluate the effect of DOM on the exercise performed at 30 °C. |
| Following the two filtration procedures, molecules larger than 1.5 kilodalton were removed. As a means of masking the taste difference between DOM and placebo, the same amounts of sucrose, artificial flavors, citrate, citrus juice, calcium lactate, potassium chloride, vitamin C, and mixed amino acids were added to both. |
Keen et al., 2016 [10] | Arizona | Well-conditioned student-athletes randomized study | DSW on physical performance | Eight student-athletes. Three experimental groups. 23.0 ± 1.2 years. | Subjects were exposed to an exercise-challenge under warm conditions. Body mass measurements were taken prior to exercise and then at 15 min intervals throughout the exercise trial and during rehydration. At each interval also, stimulated saliva was collected and salivary osmolality was measured. |
| Na (85 mg L−1), K (4 mg L−1), Ca (1.4 mg L−1), Mg (4.3 mg L−1), Cl (150 mg L−1), B (0.65 mg L−1), bromide (540 µg L−1), and Cr (2.2 µg L−1) |
Pérez-Turpin et al., 2017 [33] | Spain | Crossover, double-blind randomized trial | SW ingestion on running performance | 12 experienced male runners. 32 ± 6.4 years | Five minutes before the exercise protocol started, the subjects consumed SW or pure water in an equivalent amount of 50 mL. Subjects were asked to run on a motorized treadmill at 40% VO2 max at a room temperature of 30 °C until attaining a 3% decrease in body mass. |
| Electrolytes were supplied in the amount of 27.297 mg L−1 Na, 0.465 mg L−1 K, 19.5 mg L−1 Mg, and 1.377 mg L−1 Ca. |
Higgins et al., 2019 [35] | Taiwan | Crossover, and counterbalanced study | DOM supplementation on high-intensity intermittent running capacity | 9 healthy, nonelite male soccer players. 22.0 ± 1.0 years | Two experimental trials were completed on a motorised treadmill, separated by 7 d, undertaken at ambient room temperature, and commenced at similar times of day. Incremental increases of 1 km h−1 were applied every three minutes until volitional exhaustion. |
| Na (54.64 mg L−1), K (56.64 mg L−1), Ca (0.22 mg L−1), Mg (170.7 mg L−1), B (0.54 mg L−1), and Rb (0.02 mg L−1) |
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Aragón-Vela, J.; González-Acevedo, O.; Plaza-Diaz, J.; Casuso, R.A.; Huertas, J.R. Physiological Benefits and Performance of Sea Water Ingestion for Athletes in Endurance Events: A Systematic Review. Nutrients 2022, 14, 4609. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14214609
Aragón-Vela J, González-Acevedo O, Plaza-Diaz J, Casuso RA, Huertas JR. Physiological Benefits and Performance of Sea Water Ingestion for Athletes in Endurance Events: A Systematic Review. Nutrients. 2022; 14(21):4609. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14214609
Chicago/Turabian StyleAragón-Vela, Jerónimo, Olivia González-Acevedo, Julio Plaza-Diaz, Rafael A. Casuso, and Jesús R. Huertas. 2022. "Physiological Benefits and Performance of Sea Water Ingestion for Athletes in Endurance Events: A Systematic Review" Nutrients 14, no. 21: 4609. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14214609