The Origins of the Obesity Epidemic in the USA–Lessons for Today
Highlights
- The obesity epidemic appeared in the USA in 1976–1980 and then spread across Westernized countries.
- The dietary factor most closely linked to the epidemic is the rise in intake of ultra-processed foods (UPFs).
- This paper adds to the large weight of evidence that strongly indicates that UPFs are a major cause of chronic diseases of lifestyle.
- There is an urgent need for interventions by both education and government policy initiatives in order to lower the intake of UPFs.
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Emergence of the Epidemic
3. Possible Causes of the Epidemic
- The appearance of the epidemic in the USA in the years 1976–1980;
- Its appearance in both genders and in all age groups and ethnicities at about the same time;
- A steady increase in the prevalence of obesity that continued until at least 2016.
3.1. Dietary Fat
3.2. Sugar and Sugar-Sweetened Beverages
3.3. Ultra-Processed Foods
3.4. The Role of Farm Bills and Food Prices
4. Research Challenges
- The change in intake of different types of food in the American diet, especially after 1978. In particular, information is needed on the changing intake of different types of UPFs in different sections of the US population from the 1970s to the present;
- The factors that explain the increase in intake of UPFs (e.g., subsidies given to farmers by the USDA, changing food prices, and trends in the number of meals purchased at fast-food restaurants);
- Changes in energy intake across the population and whether this is consistent with increases in the prevalence of obesity;
- Whether findings from the US population also explain the obesity epidemic that occurred in other Westernized countries;
- How different types of UPFs affect energy intake and lead to weight gain. A RCT that investigated this was described earlier [26]. However, while highly informative, its duration was only 2 weeks;
- The most effective means to reduce the prevalence of obesity by reducing intake of UPFs across the population;
- To determine whether a diet with a low content of UPFs is effective in aiding weight loss.
5. A Brief Overview of Ultra-Processed Foods and Health
6. Ultra-Processed Foods and Public Health: The Need for Serious Action
7. Conclusions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Bray, G.A.; Heisel, W.E.; Afshin, A.; Jensen, M.D.; Dietz, W.H.; Long, M.; Kushner, R.F.; Daniels, S.R.; Wadden, T.A.; Tsai, A.G.; et al. The science of obesity management: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement. Endocr. Rev. 2018, 39, 79–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Mayer, S.B.; Graybill, S.; Raffa, S.D.; Tracy, C.; Gaar, E.; Wisbach, G.; Goldstein, M.G.; Sall, J. Synopsis of the 2020 U.S. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Adult Overweight and Obesity. Mil. Med. 2021, 186, 884–896. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bleich, S.; Cutler, D.; Murray, C.; Adams, A. Why is the developed world obese? Annu. Rev. Public Health 2008, 29, 273–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ng, M.; Fleming, T.; Robinson, M.; Thomson, B.; Graetz, N.; Margono, C.; Mullany, E.C.; Biryukov, S.; Abbafati, C.; Abera, S.F.; et al. Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980–2013: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 2014, 384, 766–781. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Flegal, K.M.; Carroll, M.D.; Ogden, C.L.; Johnson, C.L. Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999–2000. JAMA 2002, 288, 1723–1727. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rodgers, A.; Woodward, A.; Swinburn, B.; Dietz, W.H. Prevalence trends tell us what did not precipitate the US obesity epidemic. Lancet Public Health 2018, 3, e162–e163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Flegal, K.M.; Ogden, C.L.; Fryar, C.; Afful, J.; Klein, R.; Huang, D.T. Comparisons of self-reported and measured height and weight, BMI, and obesity prevalence from national surveys: 1999–2016. Obesity 2019, 27, 1711–1719. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs. Dietary Goals for the United States, 2nd ed.; U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, USA, 1977.
- Oppenheimer, G.M.; Benrubi, I.D. McGovern’s Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs versus the meat industry on the diet-heart question (1976–1977). Am. J. Public Health 2014, 104, 59–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- U.S. Department of Agriculture; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans; U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, USA, 1980.
- Walker, T.B.; Parker, M.J. Lessons from the war on dietary fat. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2014, 33, 347–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yancy, W.S., Jr.; Wang, C.C.; Maciejewski, M.L. Trends in energy and macronutrient intakes by weight status over four decades. Public Health Nutr. 2014, 17, 256–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heini, A.F.; Weinsier, R.L. Divergent trends in obesity and fat intake patterns: The American paradox. Am. J. Med. 1997, 102, 259–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Human Nutrition Information Service. Food and nutrient intakes by individuals in the United States, 1 day, 1987–1988. In Nationwide Food Consumption Survey 1987–1988; Report No. 87-l-l; US Department of Agriculture: Washington, DC, USA, 1993. [Google Scholar]
- Tobias, D.K.; Chen, M.; Manson, J.E.; Ludwig, D.S.; Willett, W.; Hu, F.B. Effect of low-fat diet interventions versus other diet interventions on long-term weight change in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2015, 3, 968–979. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jameson, M. A Reversal on Carbs. Los Angeles Times. 12 March 2014. Available online: https://www.latimes.com/health/la-he-carbs-20101220-story.html (accessed on 7 October 2022).
- Wells, H.F.; Buzby, J.C. Dietary Assessment of Major Trends in US Food Consumption, 1970–2005. Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture; March 2008. Economic Information Bulletin No. 33. Available online: http://www.ers.usda.gov/Publications/EIB33 (accessed on 2 July 2022).
- Hill, J.O.; Wyatt, H.R.; Reed, G.W.; Peters, J.C. Obesity and the environment: Where do we go from here? Science 2003, 299, 853–855. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Christian, T.; Rashad, I. Trends in U.S. food prices, 1950–2007. Econ. Hum. Biol. 2009, 7, 113–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klurfeld, D.M.; Foreyt, J.; Angelopoulos, T.J.; Rippe, J.M. Lack of evidence for high fructose corn syrup as the cause of the obesity epidemic. Int. J. Obes. 2013, 37, 771–773. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nielsen, S.J.; Siega-Riz, A.M.; Popkin, B.M. Trends in energy intake in U.S. between 1977 and 1996: Similar shifts seen across age groups. Obes. Res. 2002, 10, 370–378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Malik, V.S.; Pan, A.; Willett, W.C.; Hu, F.B. Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013, 98, 1084–1102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Te Morenga, L.; Mallard, S.; Mann, J. Dietary sugars and body weight: Systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials and cohort studies. BMJ 2012, 346, e7492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Monteiro, C.A.; Cannon, G.; Moubarac, J.C.; Levy, R.B.; Louzada, M.L.C.; Jaime, P.C. The UN Decade of Nutrition, the NOVA food classification and the trouble with ultra-processing. Public Health Nutr. 2018, 21, 5–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Poti, J.M.; Braga, B.; Qin, B. Ultra-processed food intake and obesity: What really matters for health-processing or nutrient content? Curr. Obes. Rep. 2017, 6, 420–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hall, K.D.; Ayuketah, A.; Brychta, R.; Cai, H.; Cassimatis, T.; Chen, K.Y.; Chung, S.T.; Costa, E.; Courville, A.; Darcey, V.; et al. Ultra-processed diets cause excess calorie intake and weight gain: An inpatient randomized controlled trial of ad libitum food intake. Cell Metab. 2019, 30, 67–77.e3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mozaffarian, D.; Hao, T.; Rimm, E.B.; Willett, W.C.; Hu, F.B. Changes in diet and lifestyle and long-term weight gain in women and men. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011, 364, 2392–2404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pagliai, G.; Dinu, M.; Madarena, M.P.; Bonaccio, M.; Iacoviello, L.; Sofi, F. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and health status: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Br. J. Nutr. 2021, 125, 308–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lane, M.M.; Davis, J.A.; Beattie, S.; Gómez-Donoso, C.; Loughman, A.; O’Neil, A.; Jacka, F.; Berk, M.; Page, R.; Marx, W.; et al. Ultraprocessed food and chronic noncommunicable diseases: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 43 observational studies. Obes. Rev. 2021, 22, e13146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nago, E.S.; Lachat, C.K.; Dossa, R.A.; Kolsteren, P.W. Association of out-of-home eating with anthropometric changes: A systematic review of prospective studies. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2014, 54, 1103–1116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rao, M.; Afshin, A.; Singh, G.; Mozaffarian, D. Do healthier foods and diet patterns cost more than less healthy options? A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open 2013, 3, e004277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Franck, C.; Grandi, S.M.; Eisenberg, M.J. Agricultural subsidies and the American obesity epidemic. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2013, 45, 327–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fiolet, T.; Srour, B.; Sellem, L.; Kesse-Guyot, E.; Allès, B.; Méjean, C.; Deschasaux, M.; Fassier, P.; Latino-Martel, P.; Beslay, M.; et al. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and cancer risk: Results from NutriNet-Santé prospective cohort. BMJ 2018, 360, k322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Srour, B.; Fezeu, L.K.; Kesse-Guyot, E.; Allès, B.; Debras, C.; Druesne-Pecollo, N.; Chazelas, E.; Deschasaux, M.; Hercberg, S.; Galan, P.; et al. Ultraprocessed food consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes among participants of the Nutrinet-Santé prospective cohort. JAMA Intern. Med. 2020, 180, 283–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taneri, P.E.; Wehrli, F.; Roa-Díaz, Z.M.; Itodo, O.A.; Salvador, D.; Raeisi-Dehkordi, H.; Bally, L.; Minder, B.; Kiefte-de Jong, J.C.; Laine, J.E.; et al. Association between ultra-processed food intake and all-cause mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2022, 191, 1323–1335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Juul, F.; Parekh, N.; Martinez-Steele, E.; Monteiro, C.A.; Chang, V.W. Ultra-processed food consumption among US adults from 2001 to 2018. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2022, 115, 211–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Temple, N.J. Front-of-package food labels: A narrative review. Appetite 2020, 144, 104485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Temple, N.J. A comparison of strategies to improve population diets: Government policy versus education and advice. J. Nutr. Metab. 2020, 2020, 5932516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gittelsohn, J.; Trude, A.C.B.; Kim, H. Pricing strategies to encourage availability, purchase, and consumption of healthy foods and beverages: A systematic review. Prev. Chronic Dis. 2017, 14, E107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Redondo, M.; Hernández-Aguado, I.; Lumbreras, B. The impact of the tax on sweetened beverages: A systematic review. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2018, 108, 548–563. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hyseni, L.; Atkinson, M.; Bromley, H.; Orton, L.; Lloyd-Williams, F.; McGill, R.; Capewell, S. The effects of policy actions to improve population dietary patterns and prevent diet-related non-communicable diseases: Scoping review. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2017, 71, 694–711. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Temple, N.J. The Origins of the Obesity Epidemic in the USA–Lessons for Today. Nutrients 2022, 14, 4253. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14204253
Temple NJ. The Origins of the Obesity Epidemic in the USA–Lessons for Today. Nutrients. 2022; 14(20):4253. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14204253
Chicago/Turabian StyleTemple, Norman J. 2022. "The Origins of the Obesity Epidemic in the USA–Lessons for Today" Nutrients 14, no. 20: 4253. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14204253