Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Coffee and Enzymatic Salivary Secretion
3. Coffee Stimulates Gastric Secretion but Does Not Accelerate Gastric Emptying
4. Risk of Gastro-Esophageal Pathology
4.1. Functional Dyspepsia
4.2. Gastro-Esophageal Reflux (GERD)
4.3. Risk of Peptic Ulcers
5. Bile and Pancreas Secretions Are Stimulated by Coffee
6. Coffee Consumption Reduces Gallbladder Stone Formation
7. Increase in Colic Motility and Anti-Inflammatory Action
7.1. Effects of Coffee on Colon Motility in Physiological Conditions
7.2. Effects of Coffee after Abdominal Surgery
7.3. Effects of Coffee on Inflammatory Bowel Disease
8. Coffee Influences the Composition of the Intestinal Microbiota
9. Coffee and Cancer of the Gastrointestinal Tract
9.1. Cancer of the Oral Cavity and Esophagus
9.2. Cancer of the Stomach and Pancreas
9.3. Cancer of the Gallbladder
9.4. Colorectal Cancer
9.5. Cancer of the Liver
10. Conclusions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Authors | Study Design | Country | Size of the Population | Age (Years) | Number of Cases and Controls | Outcome |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reviews and meta-analyses | ||||||
Kim et al., 2014 [47] | Meta-analysis of 15 case-control studies between 1999 and 2012 | Europe America Asia | 113 to 43,363 participants per study included | No association between coffee consumption and GERD: <4 cups/day: OR = 0.91 (95% CI = 0.81–1.01) >5 cups/day: OR = 1.14 (0.69–1.88) | ||
Chen et al., 2021 [48] | Meta-analysis of 21 retrospective, prospective, Asian, and high-quality studies | Europe America Africa Asia | 24,943 participants | 16,297 adults, 7299 adolescents | No significant association between coffee and GERD in all 21 studies pooled: (RR = 1.07; 0.96–1.19; p < 0.001) No significant association in
| |
Single studies: GERD | ||||||
No association between coffee and GERD | ||||||
Chang et al., 1997 [42] | Case-control study | China | 2044 endoscopy patients | 16–82 years | 102 patients with GERD, 1932 without GERD, 1266 males, 778 females | No association between coffee consumption and the risk of GERD |
Boekema et al., 1999 [49] | Randomized, controlled crossover study | The Nether-lands | 15 subjects | 20–61 years | 7 cases, 33–50 years 8 controls, 20–61 years | No effect of coffee on postprandial acid reflux time or number of reflux episodes, both in GERD patients and in healthy subjects. In the fasting period, coffee increased the percentage acid reflux time only in GERD patients [median 2.6, (0–19.3) vs. median 0 (0–8.3), p = 0.028], compared to healthy subjects |
Nilsson et al., 2004 [50] | Case-control study | Norway | 47,556 participants | 19–101 years | 3155 subjects with GERD or heartburn (1555 males and 1590 females) 40,120 controls (18,814 males and 21,396 females) | No association between coffee consumption and the risk of GERD compared to a daily consumption of less than one cup 1–3 cups/day: OR = 1.0 (0.8–1.1) 3 cups/day: OR = 1.1 (0.9–1.5) |
Dore et al., 2007 [51] | Single center case-control study | Italy | 500 subjects 169 males 331 females | 15–61 years | 300 cases 200 controls 390 coffee consumers | No association between coffee consumption and GERD diagnosed by endoscopy Age- and sex-adjusted OR for coffee vs. no consumption: OR = 1.0 (0.6–1.2) |
El Serag et al., 2007 [52] | Retrospective nested case-control study | USA | 113 subjects 48 males 65 females | 17–18 years | All were patients diagnosed with GERD in childhood (10–12 years) | No association between GERD and coffee in adults with history of childhood GERD |
Zheng et al., 2007 [53] | Swedish Twin Registry Survey with questionnaires and telephone interviews | Sweden | 23,634 subjects 10,950 males and 12,684 females | 57 (42–99) years for males 58 (42–104) years for females | Males: 1753 with GERD, 9197 controls Females: 2330 with GERD, 10,354 controls | No association between GERD and coffee in female subjects Adjusted ORs compared to no consumption: 1–3 cups/day: OR = 0.92 (0.76–1.12) 4–6 cups/day: OR = 1.01 (0.82–1.25) ≥7 cup/day: OR = 1.10 (0.85–1.43) |
Friedenberg et al., 2010 [54] | Cross-sectional survey | USA | 503 subjects 374 controls, 147 males and 227 females 129 with GERD, 129 with GERD | 42.3 ± 17.2 years for controls 44.9 ± 15.9 years for controls | 374 controls, 129 with GERD | No association between coffee consumption and GERD Association between body mass index (high BMI in this population (29.6 ± 9.1) and GERD |
Bhatia et al., 2011 [44] | Multicenter case-control study | India | 3224 participants | GERD patients: 38.4 (28–48;5) years Controls, 40 (30–52) years | 245 cases, 112 males and 133 females 2335 controls, 1534 males and 1444 females | No association between coffee consumption and GERD Multivariate OR = 0.66 (0.29–1.50; p = 0.309) compared to no coffee |
Pandeya et al., 2012 [55] | Cross-sectional survey | Australia | 1580 subjects 1040 males 540 females | 30–70 | 727 control subjects; 678 subjects with weekly GERD; 175 subjects with weekly GERD | No association between coffee consumption and GERD. Occasional GERD symptoms compared to no coffee consumption ≤3 cups/month: PR = 0.93 (0.73–1.18) 1–6 cups/week: PR = 1.04 (0.85–1.29) ≥1 cup/day: PR = 1.02 (0.82–1.26) Frequent GERD symptoms compared to no coffee consumption ≤3 cups/month: PR = 1.23 (0.69–2.19) 1–6 cups/week: PR = 1.08 (0.63–1.85) ≥1 cup/day: PR = 1.20 (0.70–2.05) |
Shimamoto et al., 2013 [56] | Cross-sectional study | Japan | 8013 subjects, 5451 coffee drinkers, 2562 non-drinkers | 49.8 ± 8.2 years in drinkers and 51.5 ± 9.7 years in non-drinkers | 4670 females (3194 drinkers and 1476 non-drinkers) 3343 males (2257 drinkers and 1086 non-drinkers) | No association between coffee consumption and risk of reflux esophagitis (compared to less than one cup of coffee/day) 1–2 cups/day, OR = 0.88 (0.74–1.04) ≥3 cups/day: OR = 0.84 (0.70–1.01) No association between coffee consumption and risk of non-erosive reflux disease (compared to less than one cup of coffee/day) 1–2 cups/day, OR = 0.93 (0.79–1.08) ≥3 cups/day: OR = 0.93 (0.79–1.10) |
Ercelep et al., 2014 [57] | Retrospective nested case-control study | Turkey | 2037 subjects 791 males 1246 females | 35.9 ± 9.7 (without GERD) 36.8 ± 9.6 (with GERD) | 1595 without GERD (636 males, 959 females) 442 with GERD (155 males, 287 females) | No association of coffee consumption with GERD symptoms, OR = 1.06 (0.66–1.70) for those drinking more than 3 cups versus non-drinking or drinking less |
Kubo et al., 2014 [58] | Case-control study | USA | 490 subjects 334 males, 136 females | 20–79 years | 181 controls (123 males, 68 females) 380 patients with GERD (211 males, 69 females) | No association between coffee consumption and GERD (compared to no coffee consumption) ≥2 cups/day: OR = 0.89 (0.52–1.51) |
Filiberti et al., 2017 [59] | Retrospective case-control study: patients with esophagitis (E) | Italy | 1420 subjects 766 males 654 females | 53.7 ± 14.1 years for controls 52.6 ± 14.7 years for E patients | 619 controls (252 males, 367 females) 462 E patients (285 males, 177 females) | No association between coffee and esophagitis in current drinkers, increased risk of E in light drinkers (<1 cup/day): OR = 1.85 (1.00–3.43) vs. controls |
Wei et al., 2019 [60] | Prospective study | Taiwan | 1837 subjects, 1197 coffee drinkers and 185 heavy consumers | Whole sample: 51.7 ± 10.2 years Males: 51.7 ± 10.4 years Females: 51.4 ± 10.0 years | 970 males and 867 females | No association between coffee consumption and GERD (compared to no coffee consumption) Coffee consumption, OR = 1.11 (0.86–1.43) Heavy coffee consumption (>2 cups/day): OR = 0.99 (0.69–1.43) No association between coffee consumption and erosive esophagitis on endoscopy (compared to no coffee consumption) Males Coffee consumption, OR = 0.86 (0.61–1.22) Heavy coffee consumption (>2 cups/day): OR = 0.86 (0.52–1.43) Females Coffee consumption, OR = 0.98 (0.63–1.52) Heavy coffee consumption (>2 cups/day): OR = 1.16 (0.60–2.26) |
Yuan et al., 2019 [61] | Multicenter case-control study | China | 1518 subjects, 832 GERD patients and 686 controls | GERD: 48.5 ± 13.2 years Non-GERD: 47.5 ± 14.86 years | GERD: 455 males, 377 females Non-GERD: 302 males, 384 females | No association between a preference for coffee drinking and GERD OR = 1.27 (0.78–2.05) |
Reduced risk of GERD in coffee consumers | ||||||
Diaz-Rubio et al., 2004 [62] | Random population sample based on telephone interviews | Spain | 2500 subjects, 1185 males and 1315 females | 40–79 years | 245 subjects with frequent GERD or dyspepsia, 546 subjects with occasional symptoms | Reduced risk of GERD symptoms and frequency in patients with frequent vs. occasional symptoms Symptoms vs. no-symptoms: OR = 0.85 (0.67–1.06) Frequent vs. occasional symptoms: OR = 0.66 (0.66–0.97) |
Zheng et al., 2007 [53] | Swedish Twin Registry Survey with questionnaires and telephone interviews | Sweden | 23,634 subjects 10,950 males and 12,684 females | 57 (42–99) years for males 58 (42–104) years for females | Males: 1753 with GERD, 9197 controls Females: 2330 with GERD, 10,354 controls | Inverse dose-dependent reduced risk of GERD associated to coffee consumption only in in male subjects Adjusted ORs compared to no consumption: 1–3 cups/day: OR = 0.91 (0.73–1.12) 4–6 cups/day: OR = 0.86 (0.69–1.08) ≥7 cup/day: OR = 0.75 (0.57–0.98) |
Increased risk of GERD in coffee consumers | ||||||
Wendl et al., 1994 [41] | Interventional double-blinded randomized study | Germany | 16 healthy volunteers | 25.9 (20–41) years | 7 men 9 women | Association between regular and GERD compared with tap water. No effects of decaffeinated coffee and tap water. GERD: 3.2% (1.3–14.4%) with regular coffee and 0.9% (0.1–3.6%) with decaffeinated coffee (p < 0.05) |
Pehl et al., 1997 [63] | Interventional double-blinded randomized study | Germany | 17 reflux patients 11 males, 6 females | 47–78 years | 9 with endoscopic esophagitis 8 controls | Association between by regular coffee and GERD in both patients with and without reflux oesophagitis Reduction of this effect by 83% with decaffeinated coffee Median values of fraction time esophageal pH: Caffeinated coffee = 17.9 (0.7–56.6) Decaffeinated coffee = 3.1 (0–49.9), p < 0.001 |
Diaz-Rubio et al., 2004 [62] | Random population sample based on telephone interviews | Spain | 2500 subjects, 1185 males and 1315 females | 40–79 years | 245 subjects with frequent GERD or dyspepsia, 546 subjects with occasional symptoms | Association between regular coffee, GERD symptoms frequency, and severity in patients with severe or long-lasting GERD Severe vs. non-severe symptoms: OR = 1.15 (0.58–2.30) ≥10 years vs. less: OR = 1.18 (0.79–1.76) |
Wang et al., 2004 [64] | Epidemiologic, based on questionnaires | China | 2789 residents | 18–70 years | 85 responders, 17 with GERD | Mild association between coffee and GERD OR = 1.23 (0.76–2.00) |
Martin-de-Argila & Martinez-Jiménez 2013 [65] | Multicenter, cross-sectional, retrospective and non-interventional study | Spain | 2246 patients with GERD | 18–70 years | 1002 males 1244 females | Coffee intake (>1 vs. <1 cup/day) significantly related to chest pain OR = 1.33 (1.01–1.75) |
Park et al., 2014 [66] | Prospective case-control study: patients monitored for upper GI cancer | Korea | 2226 subjects | 46.3 (19–87) years | 742 subjects with GERD (460 males, 282 females) and 1484 healthy controls (920 males, 564 females) | Association between regular coffee and GERD in patients with and without reflux oesophagitis (RE) for coffee vs. none RE risk in the whole sample: OR = 1.35 (1.13–1.43) RE symptoms: OR = 1.45 (1.07–1.96) Risk in young group (<40): OR = 1.13 (1.08–1.31) Mean age group (≥40–<65): OR = 1.30 (1.12–1.52) Elderly group (≤65): OR = 1.40 (1.09–2.10) |
Alsulobi et al., 2017 [67] | Cross-sectional study | Saudi Arabia | 302 subjects 207 females 95 males | 18–55 years | 186 with prior GERD symptoms | Coffee consumption increased risk of GERD in 144 subjects (77.4% of the sample) No significant effect of sex and age |
Arivan and Deepanjali, 2018 [43] | Cross-sectional survey using a validated symptom score | India | 358 subjects 188 males 170 females | 20.3 ± 1.5 (S.D.) years | 193 without symptoms; 115 with at least a weekly episode of regurgitation: Diagnosis of GERD in 18 subjects | GERD symptoms were more frequent in subjects frequently drinking tea and coffee: OR = 4.65 (1.2–17.96); p = 0.026 GERD symptoms were not affected by gender or body mass index. |
Mehta et al., 2019 [68] | Data collected from the Nurses’ Health Study, an ongoing prospective cohort study, started in 1989 | USA | 7961 women with GERD | 42–62 years | Only females | Coffee consumption and risk of GERD symptoms compared to no intake Total risk for any coffee Intake ≥6 cups/day, HR = 1.34 (1.13–1.59) Caffeinated coffee <1 cup/day = HR = 1.11 (1.03–1.19) 1–3 cups/day = HR = 1.08 (1.03–1.14) 4–5 cups/day = 1.14 (1.02–1.27) ≥6 cups/day = 1.23 (1.00–1.50) Decaffeinated coffee <1 cup/day = HR = 1.05 (0.99–1.11) 1–3 cups/day = HR = 1.19 (1.10–1.28) 4–5 cups/day = 1.02 (0.73–1.40) ≥6 cups/day = 1.48 (0.92–2.39) Replacing 2 servings of coffee/day by water No risk: HR = 0.96 (0.92–1.00) |
Correia et al., 2020 [35] | Qualitative intervention study | USA | 51 subjects 45 females 6 males | 29–83 years | All were patients with functional dyspepsia | Reduction of the pre-operative median value (interquartile range) for reflux from 4.00 (3.00) to 1.00 (1.00) p < 0.001 upon substitution of caffeinated or decaffeinated coffee by a non-caffeinated coffee substitute (roasted malt barley, roasted chicory, and roasted rye) for 1 month. |
Green et al., 2020 [69] | Observational study, data from European participants in the UK Biobank | UK | 379,713 subjects | Controls: 57.0 ± 8.0 years GERD cases: 59.3± 7.4 years | 355,744 controls 345,744 males 33,969 GERD cases 15,823 males | Limited association between coffee consumption and GERD (241016 drinkers, 2.6 ± 2.1 cups/day in both groups): OR = 1.18 (0.88–1.58) |
Single studies: Barrett’s esophageus | ||||||
Sajja et al., 2016 [70] | Cross-sectional study | USA | 2038 veterans 310 BE cases 1728 without BE | 60 ± 90.2 years for controls 61.6 ± 7.6 years for BE cases | 1869 males (1567 controls and 302 BE cases) 169 females (161 controls and 8 BE cases) | No association between coffee consumption and risk of BE when population adjusted for confounders (including sex and race) Adjusted OR = 1.04 (0.76–1.42) for coffee drinkers compared to non-coffee drinkers |
Filiberti et al., 2017 [59] | Retrospective case-control study: patients with Barrett’s esophageus (BE) | Italy | 1420 subjects 766 males 654 females | 53.7 ± 14.1 years for controls 56.2 ± 15.2 years for BE patients | 619 controls (252 males, 367 females) 339 BE patients (229 males, 110 females) | BE risk versus control: -higher in former coffee drinkers, irrespective of levels of exposure ≤1 cup/day: OR = 3.76 (1.33–10.6) >1 cup/day: OR = 3.79 (1.31–11.0); test for linear trend (TLT) p = 0.006) -higher with duration >30 years: OR = 4.18 (1.43–12.3) -higher for late quitters ≤3 years after stopping: OR = 5.95 (2.19–16.2). -higher in subjects who started drinking coffee at a later age > 18 years: OR = 6.10 (2.15–17.3) -no association in current drinkers |
Authors | Study Design | Country | Size of the Population | Age (Years) | Number of Cases and Controls | Outcome |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reviews and meta-analyses | ||||||
Zhang et al., 2015 [89] | Meta-analysis of one case-control study and 5 prospective cohort studies | Europe (Italy, Sweden, UK) America | 227,749 individuals | 216,272 controls 11,477 cases | Risk reduction of gallstone disease with coffee consumption:
| |
Kotrotsios et al., 2019 [90] | Review of epidemiological studies published between 1973 and 2018 | Europe Asia | Risk reduction of gallstone disease with coffee consumption | |||
Single studies | ||||||
La Vecchia et al., 1991 [91] | Case-control study | Italy | 1317 participants 762 men and 555 women | <45–74 years | 1122 controls (683 men and 436 women) and 195 cases (76 men and 119 women) | No association between coffee consumption and gallstones
|
Misciagna et al., 1996 [92] | Prospective cohort study | Italy | 1962 participants, 1162 men and 800 women | 30–69 years | 1858 controls 104 cases (55 men and 49 women in the 7-year follow-up | Risk reduction of gallstone disease with coffee consumption Coffee consumers vs. non-consumers: OR: 0.75 (95% CI = 0.47–1.19) |
Kratzer et al., 1997 [93] | Epidemiological study based on questionnaires | Germany | 1116 participants, 656 men and 460 women | 18–65 years | 1049 controls (618 men and 431 women) and 67 cases (38 men and 29 women) | No association between caffeine consumption and gallstones |
Sahi et al., 1998 [94] | Epidemiological study based on questionnaires | USA | 16,787 men | unknown | 15,786 controls 1019 cases | No association between coffee consumption and gallstones No measurement of the amount of coffee consumed |
Leitzman et al., 1999 [95] | Prospective cohort study Health Professional Follow-up study (HPSF) | USA | 46,008 men | 40–75 years | 44,927 controls 1081 cases | Risk reduction of gallstone disease with coffee consumption
|
Ruhl & Everhart 2000 [96] | Cohort study Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) | USA | 13,983 participants 6675 men and 7263 women | 20–74 years | 1993 cases 578 men and 1415 women | No association between coffee consumption and gallstones vs. no coffee consumptionTotal risk in men:
|
Leitzman et al., 2002 [97] | Prospective cohort study (Nurses’ Health Study, NHS) | USA | 80,898 women | 34–59 years et entry, 20 years follow-up | 73,087 controls 7811 women with cholecystectomy | Risk reduction of gallstone disease with coffee consumption Caffeinated coffee consumption compared to none:
|
Ishizuka et al., 2003 [98] | Case-control study | Japan | 7063 men | unknown | 6887 controls 174 cases | No association between coffee consumption and gallstones Coffee and prevalent gallstones (compared to no coffee consumption):
|
Walcher et al., 2010 [99] | Epidemiological study based on questionnaires | Germany | 2147 participants 1036 men and 1111 women | 18–65 years | 1976 controls 171 cases | No association between coffee/caffeine consumption and gallstones
|
Nordenvall et al., 2014 [100] | Cohort study Swedish Mammography Cohort and Cohort of Swedish Men | Sweden | 71,925 participants 40,936 men and 30898 women | Born 1914–1948 | 69,906 controls, 2019 cases, 962 men and 1057 women | Inverse association between coffee consumption and gallstones in premenopausal women or HRT users but not in other women or men Coffee and gallstones in all men vs. coffee consumption < 2 cups/day:
Premenopausal
|
Nordestgaard et al., 2019 [101] | Prospective observational study | Denmark | 101,190 individuals, 47,001 men and 54,189 women | 58 (48–67) years | 98,957 controls and 2233 cases, 8 years follow-up | Risk reduction of gallstone disease with coffee consumption Compared to no coffee consumption 0.1–3 cups/day: HR = 0.86 (0.75–0.99) 3.1–6 cups/day: HR = 0.80 (0.69–0.93) >3 cups/day: HR = 0.83 (0.66–1.03) |
Authors | Study Design | Type of Surgery | Size of the Population | Outcome |
---|---|---|---|---|
Eamudomkarn et al., 2018 [113] | Systematic review and meta-analysis of 6 randomized control studies | 3 studies on cesarean deliveries 2 on colorectal cancers 1 on gynecologic cancer surgery | 601 cases | Reference: water or no intervention Time to first flatus: Decreased time to first flatus (MD, −7.14 h; 95% CI, −10.96 to −3.33 h). Time to first bowel sound (434 participants undergoing cesarean delivery or gynecologic cancer surgery): Shorter time to first audible bowel sound (MD, −4.17 h; 95% CI, −7.88 to −0.47 h). Time to first defecation: Reduced time to first defecation (MD, −9.98 h; 95% CI, −16.97 to −2.99 h) Time to tolerance of solid food (476 participants) Shorter time to tolerance of solid food (MD, −15.55 h; 95% CI, −22.83 to −8.27 h). Postoperative nausea (359 participants undergoing cesarean delivery and gynecologic cancer surgery) No significant difference in the risk of postoperative nausea (RR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.27–1.36). Length of hospital stay (476 participants) Shorter length of hospital stay (MD, −0.74 days; 95% CI, −1.14 to −0.33 days), |
Cornwall et al., 2020 [114] | Systematic review and meta-analysis of 7 randomized control studies | 150 cesarean deliveries 114 gynecologic resections 342 colorectal resections | 606 cases: 317 patients and 289 controls | Reference: water or no intervention Time to first flatus: No significant effect of coffee on time to first flatus (MD = −3.6 h, 95% CI: 0.8, −7.96 h, p = 0.11). Time to first bowel sound (264 participants) Reduced time to first bowel sounds or sensation of bowel movement (MD = −3.3 h, 95% CI: −0.6, −6.0 h, p = 0.02). Time to first defecation: Reduced time to first defecation (MD = −11.8 h, 95% CI: −2.2, −18.5 h, p < 0.00001) Time to tolerance of solid food (280 participants) Reduced time to tolerance of solid food (MD = −17.1 h, 95% CI: −2.9 to −31.2 h, p = 0.02). Postoperative nausea: assessed in 359 patients undergoing cesarean delivery and gynecologic cancer surgery. No significant difference in the risk of postoperative nausea (RR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.27–1.36). Length of hospital stay (556 participants) No significant association between coffee consumption and length of hospital stay (MD = −1.9 days, 95% CI: 1.7, −5.4 days, p = 0.30) |
Gkegkes et al., 2020 [115] | Systematic review and meta-analysis of 4 randomized control studies | 3 studies on colorectal surgery 1 on gynecological interventions | 341 patients, 156 cases and 185 controls | Reference: water or no intervention Time to first flatus: Reduced time to first flatus (MD = −10.02 h; 95% CI −15.54 to –4.50 h) Time to first bowel movement (264 participants) Reduced time to first bowel sensation of bowel movement (MD = −12.09 h; 95% CI: −15.26 to –8.92 h) Time to first defecation: Reduced time to first defecation (MD = −16.14 h; 95% CI: −18.59 to 13.70 h) Time to tolerance of solid food: Reduced time to tolerance of solid food (MD = −1.31 h, 95% CI: −1.83 to −0.79 h) Length of hospital stay: No significant association between coffee consumption and length of hospital stay (MD = −3.18 days; 95% CI: −8.25 to 1.89 days) |
Kane et al., 2020 [116] | Systematic review and meta-analysis of 4 randomized control studies published since 2012 | 3 studies on resection of colon/rectum 3 studies on gynecological interventions | Reference: water or no intervention Time to first flatus (403 patients): Reduced time to first flatus (MD = −6.96 h; 95% CI: −9.53 to –4.38 h) Time to first defecation (231 patients): Reduced time to first defecation (MD = −9.38 h; 95% CI: −17.60 to 1.16 h) Time to tolerance of solid food (253 patients): Reduced time to tolerance of solid food (MD = −9.52 h, 95% CI: −18.19 to −0.85 h) Length of hospital stay (311 patients): Reduced length of hospital stay (MD = −2.81 days; 95% CI: −7.14 to 1.51 days) | |
Watanabe et al., 2021 [117] | Systematic review and meta-analysis of 13 randomized control trials published since 2012 9 ongoing trials were included | 6 trials on colorectal surgery 5 trials on cesarean section 2 trials on gynecological surgery | 1246 patients | Reference: water or no intervention Time to first flatus: Reduced time to first flatus (MD = −4.3 h, 95% CI: −8.5 to −0.07 h, p = 0.11). Time to first bowel sound: Reduced time to first bowel sounds (MD = −4.3 h, 95% CI: −7.1 to −1.5 h). Time to first defecation: Reduced time to first defecation (MD =−10 h, 95% CI = −14 to −5.6 h) Time to tolerance of solid food: Reduced time to tolerance of solid food (MD = −9.9 h, 95% CI: −14 to −5.9 h). Length of hospital stay (556 participants) No significant association between coffee consumption and length of hospital stay (MD = −1.5 days, 95% CI: −2.7 to −0.3 days) |
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Nehlig, A. Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update. Nutrients 2022, 14, 399. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14020399
Nehlig A. Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update. Nutrients. 2022; 14(2):399. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14020399
Chicago/Turabian StyleNehlig, Astrid. 2022. "Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update" Nutrients 14, no. 2: 399. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14020399