Dietary Sources of Melamine Exposure among US Children and Adults in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003–2004
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Study Design
2.2. Dietary Assessment
2.3. Estimation of Food Group Intakes
2.4. Assessment of Dietary Patterns
2.5. Assessment of Melamine and Creatinine Excretion
2.6. Calculation of Estimated Daily Intake (EDI)
2.7. Assessment of Sociodemographic and Lifestyle Characteristics
2.8. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Population Group | n | Urinary Melamine (ng/mL) | Urinary Creatinine (mg/dL) | Creatinine-Adjusted Melamine (µg/g) | p-Value 1 | EDI (µg/kg Body Weight) | p-Value 1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | 478 | 1.325 (0.143) | 142.4 (4.04) | 11.563 (1.235) | 0.251 (0.026) | ||
Sex | <0.05 | 0.21 | |||||
Male | 227 | 1.497 (0.224) | 140.7 (7.71) | 10.642 (1.825) | 0.259 (0.044) | ||
Female | 251 | 1.176 (0.179) | 93.7 (5.14) | 12.553 (1.759) | 0.244 (0.034) | ||
Age Group | <0.05 | <0.05 | |||||
<18 | 124 | 0.689 (0.205) | 119.8 (8.08) | 5.125 (1.551) | 0.119 (0.036) | ||
≥18 and <40 | 164 | 1.050 (0.214) | 105.2 (4.57) | 8.765 (1.845) | 0.189 (0.040) | ||
≥40 | 190 | 1.958 (0.234) | 75.0 (6.69) | 18.617 (2.476) | 0.397 (0.054) | ||
BMI Status 2,3 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||
Underweight | 10 | 0.746 (0.548) | 113.1 (6.27) | 8.888 (7.828) | 0.184 (0.164) | ||
Normal/healthy | 196 | 1.182 (0.235) | 141.9 (7.83) | 11.670 (2.503) | 0.251 (0.054) | ||
Overweight | 151 | 1.433 (0.254) | 175.0 (48.73) | 12.669 (2.629) | 0.279 (0.057) | ||
Obese | 115 | 1.489 (0.410) | 165.3 (9.85) | 10.489 (2.839) | 0.227 (0.062) | ||
Poverty Income Ratio 2 | 0.26 | 0.22 | |||||
<1.3 | 168 | 1.397 (0.196) | 124.7 (7.64) | 11.181 (1.442) | 0.241 (0.032) | ||
≥1.3 and <1.85 | 66 | 1.232 (0.280) | 131.8 (9.41) | 9.238 (2.270) | 0.201 (0.049) | ||
≥1.85 and <3.5 | 104 | 1.254 (0.315) | 111.0 (10.22) | 11.252 (2.949) | 0.243 (0.062) | ||
≥3.5 | 120 | 1.353 (0.288) | 104.5 (6.62) | 12.955 (3.038) | 0.284 (0.066) | ||
Race/Hispanic Origin | 0.36 | 0.46 | |||||
Mexican American | 106 | 1.327 (0.371) | 123.6 (4.29) | 11.547 (2.984) | 0.256 (0.066) | ||
Other Hispanic | 20 | 0.643 (0.555) | 108.6 (4.88) | 5.201 (4.344) | 0.112 (0.094) | ||
Non-Hispanic White | 203 | 1.452 (0.185) | 153.7 (12.21) | 13.371 (1.807) | 0.290 (0.039) | ||
Non-Hispanic Black | 131 | 0.961 (0.154) | 105.5 (27.48) | 6.256 (1.277) | 0.136 (0.028) | ||
Other including multiracial | 18 | 2.165 (0.462) | 149.0 (38.68) | 20.525 (8.999) | 0.452 (0.195) | ||
Physical Activity Level 2,4 | <0.05 | <0.05 | |||||
Inactive | 141 | 1.723 (0.308) | 97.7 (3.79) | 16.756 (2.912) | 0.350 (0.060) | ||
Slightly Active | 71 | 1.031 (0.345) | 141.3 (16.18) | 7.580 (2.843) | 0.168 (0.062) | ||
Active | 56 | 1.189 (0.360) | 102.6 (20.16) | 10.249 (3.616) | 0.226 (0.080) | ||
Highly Active | 30 | 1.273 (0.371) | 105.9 (17.46) | 11.377 (3.854) | 0.258 (0.087) | ||
Smoking Status 2,5 | 0.44 | 0.35 | |||||
Nonsmoker | 288 | 1.383 (0.205) | 102.7 (3.62) | 13.466 (1.92) | 0.292 (0.042) | ||
ETS-exposed | 67 | 1.051 (0.315) | 116.4 (16.45) | 9.033 (2.983) | 0.193 (0.063) | ||
Active Smoker | 119 | 1.367 (0.259) | 137.7 (5.58) | 10.008 (1.971) | 0.219 (0.043) |
Food Group | Units | Minimally Adjusted Model 2 | Fully Adjusted Model 3 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate (95% CI) | p-Value 4 | Estimate (95% CI) | p-Value 4 | ||
Primary Analysis: Meats and Grains | |||||
Total Meat, Poultry and Fish | ounces | −2.8% (−6.5, 1.1) | 0.16 | −3.2% (−7.3, 1.1) | 0.14 |
Red Meat | ounces | −4.3% (−10.3, 2.1) | 0.18 | −5.3% (−11.3, 1.2) | 0.11 |
Processed Meat | ounces | 9.7% (2.3, 17.7) | 0.010 | 10.6% (2.7, 19.0) | 0.007 |
Poultry | ounces | −2.7% (−9.6, 4.7) | 0.46 | −2.5% (−9.6, 5.1) | 0.50 |
Fish and Seafood (High ω-3) | ounces | 9.3% (−4.8, 25.6) | 0.21 | 8.3% (−9.2, 29.1) | 0.38 |
Fish and Seafood (Low ω-3) | ounces | −2.2% (−19.8, 19.1) | 0.82 | −1.8% (−20.3, 21.1) | 0.87 |
Total Grains | ounces | 2.7% (−1.4, 6.9) | 0.20 | 2.7% (−1.1, 6.6) | 0.16 |
Whole Grains | ounces | 20.3% (6.2, 36.3) | 0.004 * | 17.4% (4.7, 31.7) | 0.006 * |
Non-Whole Grains | ounces | 1.7% (−2.6, 6.3) | 0.44 | 1.9% (−2.1, 6.1) | 0.36 |
Secondary Analysis: Other Main Food Groups | |||||
Total Dairy | cups | −0.9% (−9, 7.9) | 0.83 | −2.0% (−10.1, 6.8) | 0.64 |
Total Vegetables | cups | 1.4% (−10.5, 14.9) | 0.83 | 1.2% (−12.2, 16.6) | 0.87 |
Total Fruits | cups | 11.8% (1.4, 23.3) | 0.026 | 11.9% (−1.9, 27.6) | 0.09 |
Discretionary Oils | g | −0.3% (−1.1, 0.6) | 0.53 | −0.2% (−1.0, 0.5) | 0.59 |
Discretionary Solid Fats | g | −0.2% (−0.9, 0.5) | 0.63 | −0.2% (−0.9, 0.5) | 0.53 |
Added Sugars | teaspoons | −0.1% (−1.2, 1.0) | 0.85 | −0.2% (−1.3, 0.9) | 0.73 |
Food Group | Western Pattern | Prudent Pattern | American-Healthy Pattern | Convenience Pattern |
---|---|---|---|---|
Whole Grains | 0.010 | 0.175 | 0.262 | 0.108 |
Non-Whole Grains | 0.267 | −0.058 | 0.097 | −0.028 |
Dark-Green Vegetables | 0.003 | 0.257 | 0.040 | −0.086 |
Orange Vegetables | 0.000 | 0.254 | 0.002 | −0.142 |
White Potatoes | 0.066 | 0.066 | −0.326 | 0.195 |
Other Starchy Vegetables | 0.005 | 0.098 | −0.068 | 0.027 |
Tomatoes | 0.176 | 0.011 | 0.147 | −0.322 |
Other Vegetables | 0.107 | 0.263 | −0.038 | −0.327 |
Citrus, Melons, and Berries | 0.033 | 0.108 | 0.176 | 0.013 |
Other Fruits | 0.002 | 0.161 | 0.347 | 0.090 |
Milk | 0.070 | 0.001 | 0.254 | 0.291 |
Yogurt | −0.007 | 0.060 | 0.176 | 0.038 |
Cheese | 0.222 | −0.138 | 0.164 | −0.080 |
Red Meat | 0.103 | −0.007 | −0.222 | −0.261 |
Organ Meat | 0.017 | 0.006 | −0.030 | 0.036 |
Processed Meat | 0.103 | −0.111 | 0.048 | 0.146 |
Poultry | 0.031 | 0.118 | −0.148 | 0.119 |
Fish and Seafood (High ω-3) | −0.002 | 0.153 | 0.022 | −0.046 |
Fish and Seafood (Low ω-3) | 0.006 | 0.144 | −0.018 | −0.004 |
Eggs | 0.063 | 0.012 | −0.077 | −0.038 |
Soy Products | 0.000 | 0.140 | 0.153 | −0.136 |
Nuts and Seeds | 0.052 | 0.245 | −0.055 | 0.276 |
Legumes | 0.047 | 0.030 | 0.037 | −0.138 |
Discretionary Oils | 0.146 | 0.290 | −0.203 | 0.259 |
Discretionary Solid Fats | 0.300 | −0.113 | 0.020 | 0.062 |
Added Sugars | 0.196 | −0.064 | −0.126 | 0.190 |
Alcoholic Beverages | 0.046 | 0.050 | −0.237 | −0.195 |
Dietary Pattern | Minimally Adjusted Model 2 | Fully Adjusted Model 3 |
---|---|---|
Western | 0.02 (−0.17, 0.20) | 0.01 (−0.18, 0.20) |
Prudent | −0.02 (−0.13, 0.09) | −0.01 (−0.14, 0.12) |
American-Healthy | 0.15 (0.05, 0.25) | 0.15 (0.05, 0.24) |
Convenience | −0.02 (−0.17, 0.14) | −0.01 (−0.16, 0.13) |
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Melough, M.M.; Foster, D.; Fretts, A.M.; Sathyanarayana, S. Dietary Sources of Melamine Exposure among US Children and Adults in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003–2004. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3844. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123844
Melough MM, Foster D, Fretts AM, Sathyanarayana S. Dietary Sources of Melamine Exposure among US Children and Adults in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003–2004. Nutrients. 2020; 12(12):3844. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123844
Chicago/Turabian StyleMelough, Melissa M., Deborah Foster, Amanda M. Fretts, and Sheela Sathyanarayana. 2020. "Dietary Sources of Melamine Exposure among US Children and Adults in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003–2004" Nutrients 12, no. 12: 3844. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123844