Growth and Development of Preschool Children (12–60 Months): A Review of the Effect of Dairy Intake
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Impact of Undernutrition on Cognitive Development in Early Childhood
4. Linear Growth and Socio-Economic Potential
5. Observations and Recommendations on Dairy Intake by Preschoolers
6. Dairy Intake and Linear Growth in Preschool Children
7. Cow’s Milk Exclusion Diets
8. Dairy Intake and Cognitive Development in Preschoolers
9. Dairy Intake and Weight Gain
10. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Improving Child Nutrition. The Achievable Imperative for Global Progress. Available online: https://www.who.int/pmnch/media/news/2013/20130416_unicef_nutrition.pdf?ua=1 (accessed on 27 March 2020).
- Prevalence of Stunting, Height for Age (% of Children under 5)—Country Ranking. Available online: https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/indicators/SH.STA.STNT.ZS/rankings (accessed on 27 March 2020).
- Stunting in a Nutshell. Available online: https://www.who.int/nutrition/healthygrowthproj_stunted_videos/en/ (accessed on 27 March 2020).
- Golden, M.H.N. The Role of Individual Nutrient Deficiencies in Growth Retardation of Children as Exemplified by Zinc and Protein. In Linear Growth Retardation in Less Developed Countries; Nestlé Nutrition Workshop Series; Waterlow, J.C., Ed.; Nestec Ltd.: Vevey, Switzerland; Vevey/Raven Press, Ltd.: New York, NY, USA, 1988; Volume 14, pp. 143–163. [Google Scholar]
- Ghosh, S.; Suri, D.; Uauy, R. Assessment of protein adequacy in developing countries: Quality matters. Br. J. Nutr. 2012, 108, S77–S87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Michaelsen, K.F. Cow’s milk in the prevention and treatment of stunting and wasting. Food Nutr. Bull. 2013, 34, 249–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cusick, S.E.; Georgieff, M.K. The role of Nutrition in Brain Development: The Golden Opportunity of the “First 1000 Days”. J. Pediatr. 2016, 175, 16–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cusick, S.E.; Georgieff, M.K. The First 1000 Days of Life: The Brain’s Window of Opportunity. Available online: https://www.unicef-irc.org/article/958-the-first-1000-days-of-life-the-brains-window-of-opportunity.html (accessed on 17 October 2019).
- Hoddinott, J.; Alderman, H.; Behrman, J.R.; Haddad, L.; Horton, S. The economic rationale for investing in stunting reduction. Matern. Child Nutr. 2013, 9 (Suppl. S2), 69–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Thomas, D.; Strauss, J. Health and wages: Evidence on men and women in urban Brazil. J. Econom. 1997, 77, 159–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Persico, N.; Postletwaite, A.; Silverman, D. The effect of adolescent experience on labor market outcomes: The case of Height. J. Political Econ. 2004, 112, 1019–1053. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Case, A.; Paxson, C. Stature and status: Height, ability, and labor market outcomes. J. Political Econ. 2008, 116, 499–532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sudfeld, C.R.; McCoy, D.C.; Danaei, G.; Fink, G.; Ezzati, M.; Andrews, K.G.; Fawzi, W.W. Linear Growth and Child Development in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Meta-Analysis. Pediatrics 2015, 135, 1266–1275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Grasgruber, P.; Sebera, M.; Hrazdíra, E.; Cacek, J.; Kalina, T. Major correlates of male height: A study of 105 countries. Econ. Hum. Biol. 2016, 21, 172–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 8th ed.; U.S. Department of Agriculture: Washington, DC, USA, 2015. Available online: https://health.gov/our-work/food-and-nutrition/2015-2020-dietary-guidelines/ (accessed on 27 March 2020).
- O’Neil, C.E.; Nicklas, T.A.; Fulgoni, V.L. Food Sources of Energy and Nutrients of Public Health Concern and Nutrients to Limit with a Focus on Milk and other Dairy Foods in Children 2 to 18 Years of Age: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2011–2014. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1050. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- FAO. Milk and Dairy Products in Human Nutrition; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2013; Available online: http://www.fao.org/3/i3396e/i3396e.pdf (accessed on 23 March 2020).
- FAO. Milk Facts. Available online: http://www.fao.org/resources/infographics/infographics-details/en/c/273893/ (accessed on 23 March 2020).
- Lott, M.; Callahan, E.; Welker Duffy, E.; Story, M.; Daniels, S. Healthy Beverage Consumption in Early Childhood: Recommendations from Key National Health and Nutrition Organizations; Consensus Statement; Healthy Eating Research: Durham, NC, USA, 2019; Available online: https://healthyeatingresearch.org/research/technical-scientific-report-healthy-beverage-consumption-in-early-childhood-recommendations-from-key-national-health-and-nutrition-organizations/ (accessed on 19 November 2019).
- World Food Programme. Use of Milk in WFP Operations. Position Paper. 2017. Available online: https://www.ennonline.net/attachments/2668/WFP-2017-Use-of-Milk-in-WFP-operations-position-paper.pdf (accessed on 10 November 2019).
- Office on Women’s Health in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2018. Available online: https://www.womenshealth.gov/breastfeeding/breastfeeding-home-work-and-public/weaning-your-baby (accessed on 29 April 2020).
- Rangan, A.M.; Randall, D.; Hector, D.J.; Gill, T.P.; Webb, K.L. Consumption of “extra” foods by Australian children: Types, quantities and contribution to energy and nutrient intakes. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 62, 356–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Elwood, P.C.; Haley, T.J.L.; Hughes, S.J.; Sweetnam, P.M.; Gray, O.P.; Davies, D.P. Child growth (0–5 years), and the effect of entitlement to a milk supplement. Arch. Dis. Child. 1981, 56, 831–835. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Super, C.M.; Herrera, M.G.; Mora, J.O. Long-Term Effects of Food Supplementation and Psychosocial Intervention on the Physical Growth of Colombian Infants at Risk of Malnutrition. Child Dev. 1990, 61, 29–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Walker, S.P.; Powell, C.A.; Grantham-McGregor, S.M.; Himes, J.H.; Chang, S.M. Nutritional supplementation, psychosocial stimulation, and growth of stunted children: The Jamaican study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1991, 54, 642–648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martorell, R.; Yarbrough, C.; Klein, R.E.; Lechtig, A. Malnutrition, body size, and skeletal maturation: Interrelationships and implications for catch-up growth. Hum. Biol. 1979, 51, 371–378. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Martorell, R.; Klein, R.E. Food supplementation and growth rates in preschool children. Nutr. Rep. Int. Their 1980, 21, 447–454. [Google Scholar]
- Martorell, R.; Klein, R.; Delgado, H. Improved nutrition and its effect on anthropometric indicators of nutritional status. Nutr. Rep. Int. 1980, 21, 219–230. [Google Scholar]
- Vaughan, J.P.; Zumrawi, F.; Waterlow, J.C.; Kirkwood, B.R. An evaluation of dried skimmed milk on children’s growth in Khartoum province. Sudan Nutr. Res. 1981, 1, 243–252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Allen, L.H.; Backstrand, J.R.; Stanek, E.J., III; Pelto, G.H.; Chavez, A.; Molina, E.; Castillo, J.B.; Mata, A. The interactive effects of dietary quality on the growth and attained size of young Mexican children. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1992, 56, 353–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Black, R.E.; Williams, S.M.; Jones, I.E.; Goulding, A. Children who avoid drinking cow milk have low dietary calcium intakes and poor bone health. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 76, 675–680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ruel, M.T. Milk intake is associated with better growth in Latin America: Evidence from the Demographic and Health Surveys. J. FASEB 2003, 17, A729. [Google Scholar]
- Hoppe, C.; Udam, T.R.; Lauritzen, L.; Mølgaard, C.; Juul, A.; Michaelsen, K.F. Animal protein intake, serum insulin-like growth factor I, and growth in healthy 2.5-y-old Danish children. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 80, 447–452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- He, M.; Yang, Y.X.; Han, H.; Men, J.H.; Bian, L.H.; Wang, G.D. Effects of yogurt supplementation on the growth of preschool children in Beijing suburbs. Biomed. Environ. Sci. 2005, 18, 192–197. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Wiley, A.S. Consumption of milk, but not other dairy products, is associated with height among US preschool children in NHANES 1999–2002. Ann. Hum. Biol. 2009, 36, 125–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wiley, A.S. Cow Milk Consumption, Insulin-Like Growth Factor-I, and Human Biology: A Life History Approach. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 2011, 24, 130–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- DeBoer, M.D.; Agard, H.E.; Scharf, R.J. Milk Intake, Height and Body Mass Index in Preschool Children. Arch. Dis. Child. 2015, 100, 460–465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tuokkola, J.; Luukkainen, P.; Nevalainen, J.; Ahonen, S.; Toppari, J.; Ilonen, J.; Veijola, R.; Knip, M.; Virtanen, S.M.; Kaila, M. Eliminating cows’ milk, but not wheat, barley or rye, increases the risk of growth deceleration and nutritional inadequacies. Acta Pediatrica 2017, 106, 1142–1149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marshall, T.A.; Curtis, A.M.; Cavanaugh, J.E.; Warren, J.J.; Levy, S.M. Higher Longitudinal Milk Intakes Are Associated with Increased Height in a Birth Cohort Followed for 17 Years. J. Nutr. 2018, 148, 1144–1149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Duan, Y.; Pang, X.; Yang, Z.; Wang, J.; Jiang, S.; Bi, Y.; Wang, S.; Zhang, H.; Lai, J. Association between Dairy Intake and Linear Growth in Chinese PreSchool Children. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wiley, A.S. Cow’s Milk Consumption and Child Growth. In Dairy in Human Health and Disease across the Lifespan; Watson, R.R., Collier, R.J., Preedy, V.R., Eds.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2017; pp. 155–166. [Google Scholar]
- de Beer, H. Dairy products and physical stature: A systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials. Econ. Hum. Biol. 2012, 10, 299–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Lamas, C.; de Castro, M.J.; Gil-Campos, M.; Gil, A.; Couce, M.L.; Leis, R. Effects of Dairy Product Consumption on Height and Bone Mineral Content in Children: A Systematic Review of Controlled Trials. Adv. Nutr. 2019, 10, S88–S96. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Dror, D.K.; Allen, L.H. Dairy product intake in children and adolescents in developed countries: Trends, nutritional contribution, and a review of association with health outcomes. Nutr. Rev. 2014, 72, 68–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hoppe, C.; Molgaard, C.; Michaelsen, K.F. Cow’s milk and linear growth in industrialized and developing countries. Ann. Rev. Nutr. 2006, 26, 131–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hornell, A.; Lagstrom, H.; Lande, B.; Thorsdottir, I. Protein intake from 0 to 18 years of age and its relation to health: A systematic literature review for the 5th Nordic Nutrition Recommendations. Food Nutr. Res. 2013, 57, 21083. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Henriksen, C.; Eggesbø, M.; Halvorsen, R.; Botten, G. Nutrient intake among two-year-old children on cows’ milk-restricted diets. Acta Paediatrica 2000, 89, 272–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mehta, H.; Groetch, M.; Wang, J. Growth and Nutritional Concerns in Children with Food Allergy. Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2013, 13, 275–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tiainen, J.M.; Nuutinen, O.M.; Kalavainen, M.P. Diet and Nutritional Status in Children with Cow’s milk allergy. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1995, 49, 605–612. [Google Scholar]
- Sinai, T.; Goldberg, M.R.; Nachshon, L.; Amitzur-Levy, R.; Yichie, T.; Katz, Y.; Monsonego-Ornan, E.; Elizur, A. Reduced Final Height and Inadequate Nutritional Intake in Cow’s Milk-Allergic Young Adults. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pr. 2019, 7, 509–515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carvalho, N.F.; Kenney, R.D.; Carrington, P.H.; Hall, D.E. Severe Nutritional Deficiencies in Toddlers Resulting From Health Food Milk Alternatives. Pediatrics 2001, 107, e46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Morency, M.-E.; Birken, C.S.; Lebovic, G.; Chen, Y.; L’Abbe, M.; Lee, G.L.; Maguire, J.L. Association between noncow milk beverage consumption and childhood height. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2017, 106, 597–602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Headey, D.D.; Palloni, G. Stunting and Wasting among Indian Preschoolers have Moderate but Significant Associations with the Vegetarian Status of their Mothers. J. Nutr. 2020, 150, 1579–1589. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Grantham-McGregor, S.; Ani, C. A Review of Studies on the Effect of Iron Deficiency on Cognitive Development in Children. J. Nutr. 2001, 131, 649S–668S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Grantham-McGregor, S.M.; Powell, C.A.; Walker, S.P.; Himes, J.H. Nutritional supplementation, psychosocial stimulation, and mental development of stunted children: The Jamaican Study. Lancet 1991, 338, 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grantham-McGregor, S.M.; Walker, S.P.; Chang, S.M.; Powell, C.A. Effects of early childhood supplementation with and without stimulation on later development in stunted Jamaican children. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997, 66, 247–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Walker, S.P.; Chang, S.M.; Powell, C.A.; Grantham-McGregor, S.M. Effects of early childhood psychosocial stimulation and nutritional supplementation on cognition and education in growth-stunted Jamaican children: Prospective cohort study. Lancet 2005, 366, 1804–1807. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abdel-Rahman, T.A.; Kamal, N.N.; El-Dessouki, K.H.; AbdAllah, A.A. Assessment of Nutritional Status and Cognitive Development of Preschool Children at Minia Governorate, Egypt. Can. J. Clin. Nutr. 2017, 5, 72–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weber, M.; Grote, V.; Closa-Monasterolo, R.; Escribano, J.; Langhendries, J.-P. Lower protein content in infant formula reduces BMI and obesity risk at school age: Follow-up of a randomized trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2014, 99, 1041–1051. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gunther, A.L.B.; Remer, T.; Kroke, A.; Buyken, A.E. Early protein intake and later obesity: Which protein sources at which time points throughout infancy and childhood are important for body mass index and body fat percentage at 7 y of age. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 86, 1765–1772. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ohlund, I.; Hernell, O.; Hornell, A.; Stenlund, H.; Lind, T. BMI at 4 years of age is associated with previous and current protein intake and with paternal BMI. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010, 64, 138–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dennison, B.A.; Rockwell, H.L.; Baker, S.L. Excess Fruit Juice Consumption by Preschool-aged Children Is Associated with Short Stature and Obesity. Pediatrics 1997, 99, 15–25. [Google Scholar]
- Garrido-Miguel, M.; Oliveira, A.; Cavero-Redondo, I.; Álvarez-Bueno, C.; Pozuelo-Carrascosa, D.P.; Soriano-Cano, A.; Martínez-Vizcaíno, V. Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity among European Preschool Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Regression by Food Group Consumption. Nutrients 2019, 11, 1698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Dror, D.K. Dairy consumption and preschool, school-age and adolescent obesity in developed countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes. Rev. 2014, 15, 516–527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lu, L.; Xun, P.; Wan, Y.; He, K.; Cai, W. Long-term association between dairy consumption and risk of childhood obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2016, 70, 414–423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Scharf, R.J.; Demmer, R.T.; DeBoer, M.D. Longitudinal evaluation of milk type consumed and weight status in preschoolers. Arch. Dis. Child. 2013, 98, 335–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huus, K.; Brekke, H.K.; Ludvigsson, J.F.; Ludvigsson, J. Relationship of food frequencies as reported by parents to overweight and obesity at 5 years. Acta Paediatrica 2009, 98, 139–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Huh, S.Y.; Rifas-Shiman, S.L.; Rich-Edwards, J.W.; Taveras, E.M.; Gillman, M.W. Prospective association between milk intake and adiposity in preschool-aged children. J. Am. Diet Assoc. 2010, 110, 563–570. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Moore, L.L.; Bradlee, M.L.; Gao, D.; Singer, M.R. Low dairy intake in early childhood predicts excess body fat gain. Obesity 2006, 14, 1010–1018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carruth, B.R.; Skinner, J.D. The role of dietary calcium and other nutrients in moderating body fat in preschool children. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 2001, 25, 559–566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Abreu, S. Dairy products and obesity in children and adolescents. In Dairy in Human Health and Disease across the Lifespan; Watson, R.R., Collier, R.J., Preedy, V.R., Eds.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2017; pp. 87–105. [Google Scholar]
- Newby, P.K.; Peterson, K.E.; Berkey, C.S.; Leppert, J.; Willett, W.C.; Colditz, G.A. Beverage consumption is not associated with changes in weight and body mass index among low-income preschool children in North Dakota. J. Am. Diet Assoc. 2004, 104, 1086–1094. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Connor, T.M.; Yang, S.-J.; Nicklas, T.A. Beverage intake among preschool children and its effect on weight status. Pediatrics 2006, 118, 1010–1018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- La Rowe, T.L.; Moeller, S.M.; Adams, A.K. Beverage Patterns, Diet Quality, and Body Mass Index of US Preschool and School-Aged Children. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2007, 107, 1124–1133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wiley, A.S. Dairy and milk consumption and child growth: Is BMI involved? An analysis of NHANES 1999–2004. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 2010, 22, 517–525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vanderhout, S.M.; Birken, C.S.; Parkin, P.C.; Lebovic, G.; Chen, Y. Relation between milk-fat percentage, vitamin D, and BMI z score in early childhood. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2016, 104, 1657–1664. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Beck, A.L.; Heyman, M.; Chao, C.; Wojcicki, J. Full fat milk consumption protects against severe childhood obesity in Latinos. Prev. Med. Rep. 2017, 8, 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Beverage Type | 0–6 Months | 6–12 Months | 12–24 Months | 2–3 Years | 4–5 Years |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Plain Drinking Water | Not needed | 0.5–1 cups/day | 1–4 cups/day | 1–4 cups/day | 1.5–5 cups/day |
Plain Pasteurized Milk | Not recommended | 2–3 cups/day whole milk | ≤2 cups/day skim or low-fat milk | ≤2.5 cups/day skim or low-fat milk | |
100% Juice | Not recommended | ≤0.5 cups/day | ≤0.5–0.75 cups/day | ||
Plant milks/Non-dairy beverages | Not recommended | Medical indication/dietary reasons only | |||
Flavored milk | Not recommended | ||||
Toddler Milk | Not recommended | ||||
Sugar-sweetened beverages | Not recommended | ||||
Beverages with low-calorie sweetener (LCS) | Not recommended | ||||
Caffeinated beverages | Not recommended |
Reference | Location (Income Category) 1 | Study N 2 | Age (year) | Design | Methods | Outcome on Height | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Randomized Controlled Studies | |||||||
Super (1980) [24] | Colombia (Upper-Middle Income Country (UMIC)) | N/A | Up to 5 | Randomized Controlled | Supplement with 60 g Skim Milk powder (SMP) at (a) pregnancy to 6 m; (b) 3–36 m; (c) a + b | Positive | At 3 years, children who had received food supplementation averaged 2.6 cm and 642 g larger than controls |
Elwood (1981) [23] | United Kingdom (High Income Country (HIC)) | 510 | Up to 5 | Randomized Controlled | Tokens supplied to treated allowing purchase of one pint of milk at 50% cost | Not significant | Compliance was poor. Only 40% of provided tokens were utilized |
Walker (1991) [25] | Jamaica (UMIC) | 64 | 0.75–2 | Randomized controlled | One kg milk-based formula per week delivering 20 g protein per day | Positive | After 12 months, supplemented children had significantly increased length, weight, and head circumference |
Observational Studies | |||||||
Martorell (1979) [26] | Guatemala (Lower-Middle Income Country (LMIC)) | 125–178 | 1.25–3 | Cohort extracted from Longitudinal | Daily intake of supplement (Atole) and control (Fresco) measured to nearest 10 mL | Positive | Protein-calorie intake was strongly related to growth in supine length. Effect may have been due to non-iso-energetic test material |
Martorell (1980a) [27] | Guatemala (LMIC) | 190–327 | 0.25–7 | Cohort extracted from Longitudinal | Daily intake of supplement (Atole) and control (Fresco) measured to nearest 10mL | Positive | Growth rates at 2–3 years of age were most affected. For 3–7 years, the impact supplements on growth rates was quite small. Effect may have been due to non-energy balanced test and control materials |
Martorell (1980b) [28] | Guatemala (LMIC) | 229 | 0–3 | Cohort extracted from Longitudinal | Daily intake of supplement (Atole) and control (Fresco) measured to nearest 10 mL | Positive | A statistically significant increase in supine length was observed in the group receiving the test material containing dried skim milk. Effect may have been due to non-energy balanced test and control materials. |
Vaughan (1981) [29] | Sudan (LMIC) | 287 | 0.5–2.2 | Cohort with control | Fortnightly provision of 1 kg SMP or local beans | Positive | 40% of children showed an improvement in weight-for-age and weight-for-height categories. SMP supplemented group grew on average 0.24 cm per month more than those in the beans group |
Allen (1992) [30] | Mexico (UMIC) | 64 | 1.5–2.5 | Longitudinal | Maternal recall, observation weighing and food record, 2 adjacent days per month. | Positive | Size at 30 months and growth rates were positively related to consumption of animal-origin foods. |
Black (2002) [31] | New Zealand (HIC) | 250 | 3–10 | Cross-sectional | Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) | Positive | Milk avoiders were significantly shorter than control children of the same age and sex |
Ruel (2003) [32] | 5 Latin American countries (UMIC/LMIC) | N/A | 1–3 | Cross-sectional | 7 data sets from Demographic and Health Surveys | Positive | Milk intake was associated with higher height-for-age Z-scores (HAZ) and the effect was independent of breastfeeding status despite wide variations in milk intake by country. |
Hoppe (2004) [33] | Denmark (HIC) | 90 | 2.5 | Cross-sectional | 7-days food record | Positive | Milk significantly associated with height |
He (2005) [34] | China (UMIC) | 201 | 3–5 | Cohort study | 1 serving of yogurt (125 g) 5 day/week | Positive | Height gain in yogurt group was significant compared to control after 3, 6 and 9 months |
Wiley (2009) [35] | United States (HIC) | 1002 | 2–4 | Cross-sectional (NHANES 1999-2002) | 24-h recall, ranked milk consumption in past 30 days | Positive | Children in highest milk quartile (Q-IV) sig taller than those in Q-II and Q-III but not in Q-I. Children w/ daily milk intake were sig taller than those with less frequent intake. Other dairy not associated w/ height. |
Wiley (2011) [36] | United States (HIC) | 201 | <5 | Cross-sectional (NHANES 1999-2004) | (NHANES) data from 1999 to 2004 | Positive | Milk intake and linear growth in early childhood and adolescence, but not middle childhood, a period of relatively slow growth |
Rangan (2012) [22] | Australia (HIC) | 335 | 1.5 | Prospective cohort | 3-d weighed food record | No change | No difference in height at 8 years by quintile of dairy consumption at 1.5 y |
DeBoer (2015) [37] | United States (HIC) | 8950 | 4–5 | Longitudinal | Parental interviews including type and frequency of beverage intake | Positive | At 4, higher milk consumption was associated with higher z-scores for height). This corresponded to differences between children drinking <1 and ≥4 milk servings daily of 1cm in height |
Tuokkola (2017) [38] | Finland (HIC) | 90 | 0–3 | Case Control | 3-d food record at 1, 2 and 3 years | Positive | Children on milk elimination diets grew slower than controls |
Marshall (2018) [39] | United States (HIC) | 717 | 2–17 | Longitudinal | Beverage intakes (n = 708) were collected by beverage frequency questionnaires at 3- to 6-m intervals | Positive | For each additional 8 ounces (236 mL) of milk consumed per day throughout childhood and adolescence, height increased, on average, by 0.39 cm |
Duan (2020) [40] | China (UMIC) | 12,153 | 2–4 | Cross-Sectional (CNHS 2013) | Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) | Positive | Dairy intake was significantly associated with higher HAZ and lower risk of stunting. Children who consumed dairy intake at least once per day had a 28% lower risk of stunting compared to children without dairy intake in the last week. |
Reference | Location (Income Cat.) 1 | Study N 2 | Age (year) | Design | Methods | Outcome on Weight | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dennison (1997) [62] | USA (HIC) | 90 and 70 | 2 and 5 | Cross-sectional | Parents guided in completion of a written, consecutive, 7-day dietary record for their child | Not Significant | No association was observed between obesity and milk consumption. Prevalence of obesity was not increased among children drinking ≥16 fl. oz/day of milk compared with those drinking less than 16 fl. oz/day of milk |
Carruth (2001) [70] | USA (HIC) | 53 | 2–5 | Longitudinal | 18 days of dietary data collected 2–96 months (m) study | Inverse | Higher longitudinal intakes of calcium, monounsaturated fat, and servings of dairy products were associated with lower body fat. |
Hoppe (2004) [33] | Denmark (HIC) | 90 | 2.5 | Longitudinal | 7-day dietary record and serum IGF-I measurement | Not Significant | Weight was also positively correlated with total protein intake. However, the association with animal protein was not significant, whereas that with vegetable protein was significant |
Newby (2004) [72] | USA (HIC) | 1345 | 2–5 | Longitudinal | Dietary and anthropometric data collected during WIc clinic visits on average 8.4 months apart | Not Significant | Weight change was not significantly related to intakes (per ounce) of milk |
Moore (2006) [69] | USA (HIC) | 92 | 3–6 | Longitudinal | Dietary intake assessed repeatedly using 3-day diet records | Inverse | Suboptimal dairy intakes during preschool in this cohort were associated with greater gains in body fat throughout childhood. Both BMI and averages of 4 skinfold analyses showed significantly higher values for lower tertile of dairy intake compared to highest. |
O’Connor (2006) [73] | USA (HIC) | 1572 | 2–5 | Cross-sectional | 24-h dietary recall | Not significant | There was no clinically significant association between the types of milk (percentage of fat) consumed and weight status. There was not a statistically significant increase in BMI based on quantity of milk, 100% fruit juice, fruit drink, or soda consumed |
Gunther (2007) [60] | Germany (HIC) | 203 | 0.5–2 | Longitudinal | The median of energy-adjusted protein intakes (in g/day) was used to distinguish different patterns of low and high protein intakes throughout the first 2 years of life | Positive in relation to dairy protein intake | Dairy but not meat or cereal protein intake, at 12 months was related to BF% at 7 years |
LaRowe (2007) [74] | USA (HIC) | 541 | 2–5 and 6–11 | Cross-sectional | Diet quality was assessed using energy, micronutrient intakes, and Healthy Eating Index scores. Subjects clustered by beverage consumption | Not significant at preschool; inverse at school age. | Adjusted mean BMI not significant for preschool group but differed significantly across beverage clusters only in school-aged children but high fat milk cluster returned lowest BMI. |
Huus (2009) [67] | Sweden (HIC) | 16,058 to 7356 | 0–5 | Longitudinal | Food frequencies reported by parents at 2.5 and 5 years were studied in relation to overweight/obesity at 5 years | Not significant | Intake of milk at 2.5 and 5 years showed no association with overweight/obesity. Intake of cheese at 2.5 years was positively associated with overweight/obesity at 5 years but only for the un-adjusted OR. At 5 years cream/creme fraiche were negatively associated with overweight/obesity. |
Huh (2010) [68] | USA (HIC) | 852 | 2–3 | Cohort study | Milk and dairy intake at age 2 by semi-quantitative child food frequency questionnaire previously validated among preschool-age children | Not significant | Higher intake of whole milk at age 2, but not low-fat milk, was associated with a slightly lower BMI z-score at age 3. Intake of milk at age 2, whether full or low-fat, was not associated with risk of incident overweight at age 3. Neither total milk nor total dairy intake at age 2 was associated with BMI z-score or incident overweight at age 3. |
Ohlund (2010) [61] | Sweden (HIC) | 127 | 1.5–4 | Longitudinal | Monthly 5-day food records during the initial 6–18 months of age and one 5-day record at the 4 years | Positive with respect to dairy protein and E% intake | BMI at 6–18 months was the strongest predictor of BMI at 4 years. Protein intake at 17–18 months and at 4 years, energy intake at 4 years and the father’s BMI were also independent contributing factors to the child’s BMI. There was a positive relationship between intake of protein and E% from milk at 4 years and BMI z-score at 4 years. |
Wiley (2010) [75] | USA (HIC) | 1493 and 2526 | 2–4 and 5–10 | Cross-sectional | 24-h recall and reported their past 30-day milk intake frequency | Positive association between E% from milk and BMI | Younger children in the highest quartile of dairy intake had higher BMIs than those in the lowest two quartiles in a non-energy adjusted model. Young children in the highest quartile of milk intake had higher BMIs than all lower quartiles |
Scharf (2013) [66] | USA (HIC) | 2745 | 1–6 | Longitudinal | Parental computer-assisted interview including questions on fat-content of milk consumed, frequency and volume | Inverse association with fat content of milk | Increasing fat content in the type of milk consumed was inversely associated with BMI z-score. Compared to those drinking 2%/whole milk, 2- and 4-year-old children drinking 1%/skim milk had increased adjusted odds of being overweight) or obese. In longitudinal analysis, children drinking 1%/skim milk at both 2 and 4 years were more likely to become overweight/obese between these time points |
DeBoer (2015) [37] | USA (HIC) | 8950 | 4–5 | Longitudinal | Parents completed a computer-assisted interview including questions regarding the type, fat content and frequency of milk intake. | Positive | Higher milk consumption by 4-year-olds was associated with higher z-scores of BMI and weight-for-height at 4 years. This corresponded to differences between children drinking <1 and ≥4 milk servings daily of approximately 0.15 kg in weight. By age 5 years only the association with height remained significant. |
Vanderhout (2016) [76] | Canada (HIC) | 2745 | 1–6 | Cross-sectional | Parents answered a standardized data collection instrument adapted from the Canadian Community Health Survey | Inverse association between milk fat content and z-BMI score | A negative association between milk-fat percentage and zBMI. Participants who drank whole milk had a 5.4-nmol/L higher median 25(OH)D concentration and a 0.72 lower zBMI score than children who drank 1% milk. Whole milk consumption among healthy young children was associated with higher vitamin D stores and lower BM |
Beck (2017) [77] | USA (HIC) | 145 | 3 | Cross-sectional | 24-h-dietary recalls were conducted to determine child intake of whole, 2% or 1% milk in San Francisco based cohort of Latino children | Inverse association between high milk fat consumption and obesity | Severely obese children had a lower mean intake of milk fat (5.3 g vs. 8.9 g) and fewer drank any milk (79% versus 95% for not severely obese children). In the multivariate model, higher milk fat consumption was associated with lower odds of severe obesity. Higher milk fat consumption is associated with lower odds of severe obesity among Latino preschoolers. |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Clark, D.C.; Cifelli, C.J.; Pikosky, M.A. Growth and Development of Preschool Children (12–60 Months): A Review of the Effect of Dairy Intake. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3556. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113556
Clark DC, Cifelli CJ, Pikosky MA. Growth and Development of Preschool Children (12–60 Months): A Review of the Effect of Dairy Intake. Nutrients. 2020; 12(11):3556. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113556
Chicago/Turabian StyleClark, David C., Christopher J. Cifelli, and Matthew A. Pikosky. 2020. "Growth and Development of Preschool Children (12–60 Months): A Review of the Effect of Dairy Intake" Nutrients 12, no. 11: 3556. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113556