Vitamin D Status Is Associated with Modifiable Lifestyle Factors in Pre-Adolescent Children Living in Urban Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
2.1. Participants
2.2. General Health Screening
2.3. Bone Parameters and Body Composition
2.4. Serum 25-OH Vitamin D and PTH
2.5. Calcium and Vitamin D Intake
2.6. Sun Index (SI)
2.7. Physical Activity
2.8. Anthropometry
2.9. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Total (n = 243) | Boys (n = 127) | Girls (n = 116) | p-Value ¥ | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age | 10.1 ± 1.0 | 10.2 ± 0.9 | 10.0 ± 1.0 | 0.122 |
Ethnicity (n,%) | ||||
Malay | 220 (90.5) | 110 (86.6) | 110 (94.8) | |
Indian | 23 (9.5) | 17 (13.4) | 6 (5.2) | |
Tanner stage (n,%) | ||||
Stage 1 | 230 (94.7) | 125 (98.4) | 105 (90.5) | |
Stage 2 | 13 (5.3) | 2 (1.6) | 11 (9.5) | |
Monthly household income (n,%) # | 0.275 | |||
Low < RM4849 | 183 (75.3) | 100 (78.7) | 83 (71.6) | |
Middle income RM4850-10959 | 37 (15.2) | 17 (13.4) | 20 (17.2) | |
High income ≥ RM10960 | 14 (5.8) | 6 (4.7) | 8 (6.9) | |
No response | 9 (3.7) | 4 (3.2) | 5 (4.3) | |
Serum 25(OH)D (nmol/L) | 43.9 ± 14.5 | 50.3 ± 13.7 | 36.8 ± 11.9 | <0.001 ** |
PTH (pmol/L) | 3.22 ± 2.14 | 2.81 ± 1.81 | 3.68 ± 2.37 | 0.001 * |
BMI (kg/m2) | 18.0 ± 4.5 | 18.3 ± 4.8 | 17.7 ± 4.2 | 0.332 |
BMI-for-age Z-score | 0.187 ± 1.693 | 0.321 ± 1.742 | 0.040 ± 1.632 | 0.198 |
BMI Z-score classification, n (%) | ||||
Thinness | 21 (8.7) | 9 (7.1) | 12 (10.3) | |
Normal | 142 (58.4) | 74 (58.3) | 67 (57.8) | |
Overweight | 37 (15.2) | 18 (14.2) | 21 (18.1) | |
Obese | 43 (17.7) | 26 (20.5) | 16 (13.8) | |
LSBMC (g) | 21.7 ± 5.2 | 21.6 ± 4.7 | 21.9 ± 5.7 | 0.725 |
LSBMD (g/cm2) | 0.725 ± 0.091 | 0.715 ± 0.081 | 0.736 ± 0.100 | 0.064 |
TBBMC (g) | 1129.5 ± 231.6 | 1160.4 ± 237.9 | 1095.6 ± 220.6 | 0.029 * |
TBBMD (g/cm2) | 0.768 ± 0.075 | 0.780 ± 0.075 | 0.754 ± 0.072 | 0.006 ** |
TBBMD z-score | 0.789 ± 0.960 | 0.890 ± 0.921 | 0.678 ± 0.994 | 0.087 |
Lean mass (kg) | 21.79 ± 5.29 | 22.50 ± 5.40 | 21.00 ± 5.07 | 0.026 * |
Fat mass (kg) | 10.93 ± 7.08 | 11.00 ± 7.98 | 10.85 ± 5.98 | 0.876 |
Body fat percentage (%) | 29.87 ± 8.44 | 28.82 ± 9.17 | 31.06 ± 7.39 | 0.035 * |
Energy (Kcal/day) | 1457 ± 450 | 1543 ± 463 | 1363 ± 417 | 0.002 * |
Protein intake (g/day) | 61.4 ± 21.6 | 65.7 ± 23.3 | 56.6 ± 18.7 | 0.001 * |
Calcium intake (mg/day) | 329 ± 202 | 355 ± 215 | 300 ± 185 | 0.035 * |
Vitamin D intake (µg/day) | 1.6 ± 1.6 | 1.8 ± 1.8 | 1.3 ± 1.2 | 0.014 * |
PA level (MET scores) | 822 ± 447 | 961 ± 502 | 670 ± 317 | <0.001 ** |
Hours of sun exposure (h/week) | 6.7 ± 3.4 | 7.4 ± 3.7 | 5.9 ± 2.8 | <0.001 * |
Body surface area exposed to sun | 0.14 ± 0.08 | 0.20 ± 0.06 | 0.09 ± 0.05 | <0.001 * |
Sun Index | 1.08 ± 0.77 | 1.49 ± 0.78 | 0.62 ± 0.44 | <0.001 * |
25(OH)D Levels * | Total (n = 243) | Boys (n = 127) | Girls (n = 116) |
---|---|---|---|
<50 nmol/L | 169 (69.4) | 67 (52.8) | 102 (87.9) |
<40 nmol/L | 103 (42.4) | 30 (23.6) | 73(62.9) |
Inadequacy (30–40 nmol/L) | 57 (23.5) | 25 (19.7) | 32 (27.6) |
Deficiency (<30 nmol/L) | 46 (18.9) | 5 (3.9) | 41 (35.3) |
Predictors | Unstandardized | Standardized | t | p-Value | VIF | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE | Beta | ||||
(Constant) | 19.482 | 6.347 | 3.069 | 0.002 | ||
Height, m | −0.029 | 0.050 | −0.045 | −0.577 | 0.565 | 1.815 |
Fat mass, kg | 0.000 | 0.000 | −0.109 | −1.444 | 0.150 | 1.700 |
MET score | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.084 | 0.882 | 0.379 | 2.708 |
Vit D, µg/day | 0.367 | 0.228 | 0.100 | 1.607 | 0.109 | 1.145 |
Sun exposure (h/week) | −0.234 | 0.182 | −0.135 | −1.284 | 0.200 | 3.295 |
BSA | −3.743 | 9.084 | −0.049 | −0.412 | 0.681 | 4.244 |
Sun Index | 1.868 | 0.945 | 0.248 | 1.977 | 0.049 | 4.687 |
BSA*gender | 15.490 | 6.299 | 0.282 | 2.459 | 0.015 | 3.904 |
Predictors | Unstandardized | Standardized | t | p-Value | VIF | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE | Beta | ||||
(Constant) | 15.732 | 0.763 | 20.625 | 0.000 | ||
Fat mass, kg | −0.0001 | 0.00005 | −0.149 | −2.558 | 0.011 | 1.005 |
Sun Index | 1.497 | 0.537 | 0.199 | 2.787 | 0.006 | 1.511 |
BSA*gender | 15.370 | 3.925 | 0.279 | 3.916 | 0.000 | 1.513 |
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Chee, W.S.S.; Chang, C.Y.; Arasu, K.; Wong, S.Y.; Ong, S.H.; Yang, W.Y.; Chong, M.H.Z.; Mavinkurve, M.; Khoo, E.J.; Chinna, K.; et al. Vitamin D Status Is Associated with Modifiable Lifestyle Factors in Pre-Adolescent Children Living in Urban Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Nutrients 2021, 13, 2175. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13072175
Chee WSS, Chang CY, Arasu K, Wong SY, Ong SH, Yang WY, Chong MHZ, Mavinkurve M, Khoo EJ, Chinna K, et al. Vitamin D Status Is Associated with Modifiable Lifestyle Factors in Pre-Adolescent Children Living in Urban Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Nutrients. 2021; 13(7):2175. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13072175
Chicago/Turabian StyleChee, Winnie Siew Swee, Chung Yuan Chang, Kanimolli Arasu, Soon Yee Wong, Shu Hwa Ong, Wai Yew Yang, Megan Hueh Zan Chong, Meenal Mavinkurve, Erwin Jiayuan Khoo, Karuthan Chinna, and et al. 2021. "Vitamin D Status Is Associated with Modifiable Lifestyle Factors in Pre-Adolescent Children Living in Urban Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia" Nutrients 13, no. 7: 2175. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13072175
APA StyleChee, W. S. S., Chang, C. Y., Arasu, K., Wong, S. Y., Ong, S. H., Yang, W. Y., Chong, M. H. Z., Mavinkurve, M., Khoo, E. J., Chinna, K., & Weaver, C. M. (2021). Vitamin D Status Is Associated with Modifiable Lifestyle Factors in Pre-Adolescent Children Living in Urban Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Nutrients, 13(7), 2175. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13072175