A Priori and a Posteriori Dietary Patterns in Women of Childbearing Age in the UK
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population and Sampling Procedure
2.2. Survey
2.3. Anthropometric Measurement
2.4. Food Frequency Questionnaire
2.5. Physical Activity
2.6. Dietary Patterns
2.7. Data Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Intake of MD Individual Food Components and MD Adherence
3.2. Factor Analysis
4. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Food Groups | Food Items |
---|---|
Cereals | White bread, Brown and wholemeal bread/rolls, Crackers and cheese biscuits, Wholemeal and rye crackers, ‘Bran’ breakfast cereals, Other breakfast cereals, Added bran to foods, Brown and white rice, Pasta and dumplings, Pizza quiches/cheese flans, other puddings, Pastries, Buns, Cakes and gateaux, Biscuits—chocolate, Other biscuits—digestive and ginger. |
Non-starchy vegetables | Vegetables, Tinned vegetables, Carrots, Parsnips, swede and turnip, Sweet-corn and mixed veg, Tomatoes, Spinach, Broccoli, Brussels sprouts and spring greens, Cabbage and cauliflower, Peppers and watercress, Onion, Green salad, Side salads in dressing, Courgettes, marrow and leeks, Mushrooms, Vegetable dishes. |
Legumes | Peas and green beans, Beans and pulse. |
Fruits | Fruit puddings, Tinned fruit not including grapefruit, prunes, figs or blackcurrants, Cooked fruit not including blackcurrants, Dried fruit, Fresh apples and pears, Fresh oranges and orange juice, Grapefruit and grapefruit juice, Blackcurrants, Ribena and hi-juice blackcurrant drinks, Other fruit juices (not squashes), Bananas, Fresh peaches, plums, cherries and grapes, Strawberries and raspberries, Fresh pineapple, melon, kiwi fruit and other tropical fruit. |
Nuts | Hazelnuts, Cashews, Almonds, Brazil nuts, Walnuts. |
Meat | Bacon and gammon, Pork, Lamb, Beef, Minced meat dishes, Meat pies, Liver and kidney, Pate and liver sausage, Faggots and black pudding, Sausages, Ham and luncheon meat, Chicken and turkey. |
Fish | White fish, Fish fingers and fish dishes, Oily-fish, Shellfish. |
Dairy Products | Cottage Cheese, Cheese, Pizza, quiches and cheese flans, Milk based puddings and sauces, Yogurt and fruit fools, Ice cream and chocolate desserts, Cream, Drinking chocolate and milk shakes not including McDonald style milkshakes. |
MUFA+PUFA: SFA | Ratio of monounsaturated lipids and polyunsaturated lipids to saturated lipids. |
Eggs | Mayonnaise/salad cream, Boiled/poached eggs, Omelette and fried eggs. |
Potatoes | Potatoes boiled/jacket, Roast potatoes/chips, Crisps savoury snacks. |
Sweets | Added sugar, chocolate, other sweets and sweet spreads. |
Drinks | Diet coke/Pepsi not caffeine free, Coke and Pepsi, Soft drinks not diet drinks, drinking chocolate/milk shakes, decaffeinated coffee/tea, tea and coffee. |
Miscellaneous | Gravy granules and powders, pickles chutney, ketchup, brown sauce, stock cubes, marmite, soup. |
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Participants’ Characteristics | Total Sample | Mediterranean Diet Adherence Categories | p Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low MDS (0–3) | Medium MDS (4–5) | High MDS (6–8) | |||
N (%) | 48 (39) | 49 (40) | 26 (21) | ||
Physical and lifestyle Characteristics | |||||
Age (years) # | 25.5 (10.0) | 23.0 (10.0) | 24.5 (8.3) | 28.0 (10.5) | 0.006 |
Age (years) * | |||||
18–24 | 56 (47.4) | 28 (23.7) | 24 (20.3) | 4 (3.4) | |
25–34 | 38 (32.2) | 9 (7.6) | 16 (13.6) | 13 (11.0) | 0.01 |
35–49 | 24 (20.3) | 9 (7.6) | 9 (7.6) | 6 (5.1) | |
BMI (kg/m2) # | 24.3 (6.8) | 24.2 (6.8) | 24.3 (6.3) | 25.0 (7.4) | 0.53 |
BMI * | |||||
Overweight/obese | 59 (48.0) | 25 (20.4) | 21 (17.1) | 13 (10.6) | 0.485 |
Normal Weight | 64 (52.0) | 23 (18.7) | 28 (22.8) | 13 (10.6) | |
Waist Circumference (cm) # | 71.6 (48.0) | 71.1 (43.0) | 71.6 (51.0) | 80.0 (65.0) | 0.911 |
Waist Circumference * | |||||
Overweight/obese | 64 (62.7) | 26 (25.5) | 25 (24.5) | 13 (12.7) | 0.658 |
Normal weight | 38 (37.3) | 12 (11.8) | 17 (16.7) | 9 (8.8) | |
Waist to Height Ratio # | 0.45 (0.30) | 0.44 (0.28) | 0.45 (0.30) | 0.48 (0.41) | 0.797 |
Waist to Height Ratio * | |||||
Overweight/obese | 31 (30.4) | 12 (11.8) | 10 (9.8) | 9 (8.8) | |
Normal weight | 71 (69.6) | 26 (25.5) | 32 (31.4) | 13 (12.7) | 0.361 |
Physical Activity (MET) # | 2260 (3499.5) | 1443 (2711.25) | 2515 (4690.5) | 2055 (3049.5) | 0.477 |
Physical Activity * | |||||
Low (<600 MET minutes/week) | 24 (19.5) | 15 (12.2) | 6 (4.9) | 3 (2.4) | |
Moderate (>600 MET minutes/week) | 47 (38.2) | 15 (12.2) | 20 (16.3) | 12 (9.8) | 0.126 |
High (>3000 MET minutes/week) | 52 (42.2) | 18 (14.6) | 23 (18.7) | 11 (8.9) | |
Socio-demographic characteristics | |||||
Father’s Educational level * | |||||
No qualifications | 14 (11.5) | 5 (4.1) | 6 (4.9) | 3 (2.5) | |
Certificate of secondary education | 13 (10.6) | 6 (4.9) | 6 (4.9) | 1 (0.8) | |
O-level or GCSE | 39 (32) | 19 (15.6) | 10 (8.2) | 10 (8.2) | 0.471 |
A-level school examination | 15 (12.3) | 5 (4.1) | 8 (6.6) | 2 (1.6) | |
Higher education | 41 (33.6) | 12 (9.8) | 19 (15.6) | 10 (8.2) | |
Mother’s Educational level * | |||||
No qualifications | 7 (5.7) | 2 (1.6) | 4 (3.3) | 1 (0.8) | |
Certificate of secondary education | 7 (5.7) | 4 (3.3) | 2 (1.6) | 1 (0.8) | |
O-level or GCSE | 46 (37.4) | 23 (18.7) | 17 (13.8) | 6 (4.9) | 0.377 |
A-level school examination | 11 (9) | 4 (3.3) | 5 (4.1) | 2 (1.6) | |
Higher education | 52 (42.3) | 15 (12.2) | 21 (17.1) | 16 (13) | |
Household income (Pound/year) * | |||||
<£13,000 | 17(13.8) | 9 (7.3) | 6 (4.9) | 2 (1.6) | |
£13,000 to £23,400 | 28 (22.8) | 13 (10.6) | 11 (8.9) | 4 (3.3) | 0.528 |
£23,400 to £33,800 | 38 (30.9) | 16 (13) | 14 (11.4) | 8 (6.5) | |
£33,800 to £52,000 | 29 (23.6) | 8 (6.5) | 13 (10.6) | 8 (6.5) | |
>£52,000 | 11 (8.9) | 2 (1.6) | 5 (4.1) | 4 (3.3) | |
Marital Status * | |||||
Single or divorced | 73 (59.8) | 31 (25.4) | 32 (26.2) | 10 (8.2) | 0.027 |
Married or living together | 49 (40.2) | 16 (13.1) | 17 (14.0) | 16 (13.1) | |
Smoking * | |||||
Smoker | 26 (21.5) | 11 (9.1) | 9 (7.4) | 6 (5) | 0.616 |
Non-smoker | 95 (78.5) | 37 (30.6) | 39 (32.2) | 19 (15.7) | |
Occupation * | |||||
Student | 117 (95.1) | 45 (36.6) | 48 (39.0) | 24 (19.5) | 0.391 |
Associate professional or professional | 2 (1.6) | 0 (0) | 1 (0.8) | 1 (0.8) | |
Clerical, sales or service worker | 4 (3.2) | 3 (2.4) | 0 (0) | 1 (0.8) | |
Ethnicity * | |||||
White | 71 (58.1) | 32 (26.2) | 27 (22.1) | 12 (9.8) | 0.353 |
Other | 51 (41.7) | 16 (13.1) | 21 (17.2) | 14 (11.4) |
MD Food Components (Median (IQR)) | Total Sample (n = 123) | MD Adherence Categories | p Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low MDS (0–3) | Medium MDS (4–5) | High MDS (6–8) | |||
Cereals (g/d) | 280.4 (239.4) | 270.0 (237.3) | 279.1 (258.7) | 316.1 (199.4) | 0.748 |
Legumes (g/d) | 53.6 (87.9) | 30.7 (45.3) | 102.9 (68.6) | 97.5 (107.1) | <0.001 * |
Vegetables (g/d) | 603.5 (432.4) | 381.5 (288.8) | 708.9 (395.9) | 809.3 (376.0) | <0.001 * |
Fruits & Nuts (g/d) | 350.2 (364.1) | 217.9 (255.0) | 350.9 (322.3) | 568.8 (453.9) | <0.001 * |
Meat (g/d) | 125.3 (139.9) | 137.2 (165.1) | 122.3 (109.5) | 112.1 (156.6) | 0.696 |
Fish & seafood (g/d) | 32.1 (71.9) | 16.0 (25.3) | 42.2 (69.5) | 67.0 (79.5) | <0.001 * |
Dairy products (g/d) | 343.6 (334.1) | 504.0 (440.3) | 311.9 (295.9) | 253.9 (243.5) | <0.001 * |
(MUFA+PUFA)/SFA | 1.58 (0.63) | 1.42 (0.29) | 1.60 (0.70) | 2.07 (0.76) | <0.001 * |
MD Score | 4.0 (2.0) | 2.5 (1.0) | 5.0 (1.0) | 6.0 (1.0) | <0.001 * |
Food Groups | Factor 1 | Factor 2 | Factor 3 |
---|---|---|---|
Cereals (g/d) | 0.83 | ||
Legumes (g/d) | 0.48 | ||
Vegetables (g/d) | 0.98 | ||
Fruits and Nuts (g/d) | 0.40 | ||
Meat (g/d) | 0.33 | ||
Fish and seafood (g/d) | 0.79 | ||
Eggs (g/d) | 0.42 | ||
Potatoes (g/d) | 0.44 | ||
Dairy Products (g/d) | 0.36 | ||
Sweets (g/d) | 0.39 |
Model | Predictor | Coefficient Estimate | p Value |
---|---|---|---|
1 (Vegetarian-style dietary pattern) | Intercept | −0.3 | 0.2 |
Physical Activity (METs- h/wk) | 0.00003 | 0.01 | |
Parental Income (above average) | 0.3 | 0.09 | |
Ethnicity (white) | −0.5 | <0.01 | |
Mother’s education (A-level/higher) | 0.5 | <0.01 | |
2 (Dairy, sweets and starchy foods dietary pattern) | Intercept | 0.5 | 0.1 |
Physical Activity (METs- h/wk) | −0.00002 | 0.06 | |
Ethnicity (white) | 0.4 | 0.03 | |
Age | −0.02 | 0.03 | |
3 (Protein-rich dietary pattern) | Intercept | −0.8 | <0.01 |
Physical Activity (METs- h/wk) | −0.00002 | 0.01 | |
Age | 0.03 | <0.001 |
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Khaled, K.; Hundley, V.; Almilaji, O.; Koeppen, M.; Tsofliou, F. A Priori and a Posteriori Dietary Patterns in Women of Childbearing Age in the UK. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2921. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12102921
Khaled K, Hundley V, Almilaji O, Koeppen M, Tsofliou F. A Priori and a Posteriori Dietary Patterns in Women of Childbearing Age in the UK. Nutrients. 2020; 12(10):2921. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12102921
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhaled, Karim, Vanora Hundley, Orouba Almilaji, Mareike Koeppen, and Fotini Tsofliou. 2020. "A Priori and a Posteriori Dietary Patterns in Women of Childbearing Age in the UK" Nutrients 12, no. 10: 2921. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12102921