Green Tea, Coffee, and Caffeine Consumption Are Inversely Associated with Self-Report Lifetime Depression in the Korean Population
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Dietary Assessment
2.3. Definition of Depression
2.4. Covariates
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics by Presence of Depression
3.2. Characteristics by Green Tea Consumption
3.3. Characteristics by Coffee Consumption
3.4. Association between Green Tea, Coffee and Caffeine Consumption and the Prevalence of Depression
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Depression (n = 1443) | Non-Depression (n = 8133) | p Value | |
---|---|---|---|
Age (year) | 46.2 ± 0.5 | 43.9 ± 0.3 | <0.0001 |
No. of participants (%) | <0.0001 | ||
Men | 356 (33.6) | 3496 (52.2) | |
Women | 1087 (66.4) | 4637 (47.8) | |
Income level (%) | 0.0001 | ||
Low | 433 (31.8) | 1872 (25.2) | |
Medium | 707 (48.9) | 4189 (51.5) | |
High | 303 (19.4) | 2072 (23.2) | |
Educational level (%) | <0.0001 | ||
Elementary school (≤6 years) | 509 (27.4) | 1883 (15.8) | |
Middle/high school (7–12 years) | 620 (47.9) | 3610 (48.3) | |
College or higher (>12 years) | 314 (24.7) | 2640 (35.9) | |
Smoking status (%) | 0.03 | ||
Never | 960 (57.5) | 4850 (53.0) | |
Former | 225 (17.2) | 1676 (20.5) | |
Current | 258 (25.3) | 1607 (26.5) | |
Alcohol consumption (%) | 0.002 | ||
Never | 465 (25.7) | 2119 (20.5) | |
<2 times/week | 725 (53.4) | 4306 (56.1) | |
≥2 times/week | 253 (20.9) | 1708 (23.4) | |
Physical activity | |||
Regular | 657 (46.5) | 3861 (49.1) | 0.12 |
Body mass index (BMI) (kg/m²) | 23.6 ± 0.1 | 23.6 ± 0.1 | 0.61 |
Energy intake (kcal/day) | 1963.7 ± 31.6 | 2139.3 ± 16.6 | <0.0001 |
Beverage intake | |||
Green tea (cups/week) | 1.50 ± 0.11 | 1.91 ± 0.06 | 0.001 |
Coffee (cups/day) | 1.25 ± 0.03 | 1.37 ± 0.02 | 0.001 |
Food intake (times/day) | |||
Vegetable | 4.10 ± 0.06 | 4.22 ± 0.03 | 0.06 |
Fruit | 0.98 ± 0.02 | 1.04 ± 0.01 | 0.02 |
Red meat | 0.47 ± 0.02 | 0.54 ± 0.01 | 0.0001 |
Fish | 0.88 ± 0.03 | 0.94 ± 0.01 | 0.03 |
Never | 0–≤1 Cup/Week | 1–<3 Cups/Week | ≥3 Cups/Week | p Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Participants No. (No. of cases) | 3828 (682) | 3455 (498) | 967 (110) | 1326 (153) | <0.0001 |
Sex (%) Men | 1477 (46.3) | 1375 (50.4) | 383 (50.7) | 617 (54.2) | 0.0004 |
Women | 2351 (53.7) | 2080 (49.6) | 584 (49.3) | 709 (45.8) | |
Age (year) | 48.0 ± 0.5 | 41.9 ± 0.4 | 41.1 ± 0.5 | 43.0 ± 0.5 | <0.0001 |
Income level (%) | <0.0001 | ||||
Low | 1144 (31.4) | 729 (23.8) | 199 (23.2) | 233 (20.9) | |
Medium | 1929 (50.8) | 1795 (51.1) | 500 (53.2) | 672 (50.6) | |
High | 755 (17.8) | 931 (25.0) | 268 (23.6) | 421 (28.6) | |
Educational level (%) | <0.0001 | ||||
Elementary school (≤6 years) | 1463 (28.3) | 650 (12.9) | 113 (7.4) | 166 (8.8) | |
Middle/high school (7–12 years) | 1578 (48.2) | 1626 (49.6) | 452 (48.1) | 574 (44.6) | |
College or higher (>12 years) | 787 (23.5) | 1179 (37.5) | 402 (44.5) | 586 (46.5) | |
Smoking status (%) | 0.045 | ||||
Never | 23,901 (53.5) | 2167 (55.6) | 608 (53.6) | 734 (48.9) | |
Former | 754 (19.5) | 666 (19.6) | 183 (20.5) | 298 (22.0) | |
Current | 773 (27.0) | 622 (24.8) | 176 (25.9) | 294 (29.1) | |
Alcohol consumption (%) | <0.0001 | ||||
Never | 1291 (26.6) | 848 (19.5) | 185 (15.1) | 260 (16.1) | |
<2 times/week | 1748 (51.3) | 1942 (58.0) | 586 (60.6) | 755 (57.7) | |
≥2 times/week | 789 (22.1) | 665 (22.4) | 196 (24.2) | 311 (26.2) | |
Physical activity | |||||
Regular | 1679 (45.1) | 1670 (50.1) | 478 (51.0) | 691 (52.7) | 0.001 |
Body mass index (kg/m²) | 23.5 ± 0.1 | 23.6 ± 0.1 | 23.7 ± 0.1 | 23.9 ± 0.1 | 0.01 |
Energy intake (kcal/day) | 2021.3 ± 23.9 | 2151.4 ± 21.8 | 2150.9 ± 38.7 | 2230.5 ± 37.0 | <0.0001 |
Beverage intake | |||||
Coffee (times/day) | 1.36 ± 0.02 | 1.27 ± 0.02 | 1.28 ± 0.04 | 1.59 ± 0.04 | <0.0001 |
Food intake (times/day) | |||||
Vegetable | 3.93 ± 0.04 | 4.12 ± 0.04 | 4.61 ± 0.08 | 4.82 ± 0.07 | <0.0001 |
Fruit | 0.89 ± 0.02 | 1.06 ± 0.02 | 1.18 ± 0.03 | 1.25 ± 0.03 | <0.0001 |
Red meat | 0.44 ± 0.01 | 0.55 ± 0.01 | 0.64 ± 0.02 | 0.61 ± 0.02 | <0.0001 |
Fish | 0.81 ± 0.01 | 0.91 ± 0.01 | 1.11 ± 0.03 | 1.15 ± 0.03 | <0.0001 |
Never | 0–<1 Cup/Day | 1–<2 Cups/Day | ≥2 Cups/Day | p Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Participants No. (No. of cases) | 964 (196) | 2301 (372) | 2330 (355) | 3981 (520) | <0.0001 |
Sex (%) Men | 296 (40.2) | 823 (47.0) | 770 (41.7) | 1963 (57.2) | <0.0001 |
Women | 668 (59.8) | 1478 (53.0) | 1560 (58.3) | 2018 (42.8) | |
Age (year) | 43.7 ± 0.8 | 41.0 ± 0.5 | 46.4 ± 0.5 | 45.2 ± 0.3 | <0.0001 |
Income level (%) | 0.001 | ||||
Low | 288 (32.8) | 586 (27.7) | 567 (25.9) | 864 (23.9) | |
Medium | 467 (46.7) | 1173 (51.3) | 1177 (50.0) | 2079 (52.7) | |
High | 209 (20.5) | 542 (21.0) | 586 (24.1) | 1038 (23.4) | |
Educational level (%) | <0.0001 | ||||
Elementary school (≤6 years) | 365 (24.9) | 617 (17.5) | 672 (20.9) | 738 (14.0) | |
Middle/high school (7–12 years) | 350 (42.8) | 1000 (50.0) | 983 (45.3) | 1897 (50.0) | |
College or higher (>12 years) | 249 (32.3) | 684 (32.5) | 675 (33.8) | 1346 (36.1) | |
Smoking status (%) | <0.0001 | ||||
Never | 701 (65.9) | 1540 (59.3) | 1553 (60.0) | 2016 (44.1) | |
Former | 159 (17.1) | 441 (19.5) | 442 (19.4) | 859 (21.3) | |
Current | 104 (17.0) | 320 (21.2) | 335 (20.6) | 1106 (34.6) | |
Alcohol consumption (%) | <0.0001 | ||||
Never | 441 (34.7) | 673 (21.6) | 668 (24.2) | 802 (16.4) | |
<2 times/week | 380 (47.4) | 1236 (59.3) | 1236 (55.1) | 2179 (55.8) | |
≥2 times/week | 143 (17.9) | 392 (19.1) | 426 (20.7) | 1000 (27.8) | |
Physical activity | 0.48 | ||||
Regular | 432 (46.9) | 1122 (50.3) | 1097 (48.6) | 1867 (48.3) | |
Body mass index (kg/m²) | 23.2 ± 0.2 | 23.2 ± 0.1 | 23.7 ± 0.1 | 23.9 ± 0.1 | <0.0001 |
Energy intake (kcal/day) | 1971.4 ± 38.1 | 2077.7 ± 27.1 | 1969.0 ± 24.9 | 2244.9 ± 21.3 | <0.0001 |
Beverage intake | |||||
Green tea (times/week) | 1.17 ± 0.14 | 1.33 ± 0.08 | 1.97 ± 0.10 | 2.25 ± 0.10 | <0.0001 |
Food intake (times/day) | |||||
Vegetable | 4.12 ± 0.10 | 3.92 ± 0.05 | 4.27 ± 0.05 | 4.35 ± 0.04 | <0.0001 |
Fruit | 1.02 ± 0.04 | 1.03 ± 0.02 | 1.08 ± 0.02 | 1.01 ± 0.02 | 0.08 |
Red meat | 0.53 ± 0.02 | 0.54 ± 0.01 | 0.51 ± 0.02 | 0.54 ± 0.01 | 0.49 |
Fish | 0.89 ± 0.03 | 0.86 ± 0.02 | 0.92 ± 0.02 | 0.98 ± 0.01 | <0.0001 |
Green Tea | Never | 0–≤1 Cup/Week | 1–<3 Cups/Week | ≥3 Cups/Week | p for Trend |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Participants No. (No. of cases) | 3828 (682) | 3455 (498) | 967 (110) | 1326 (153) | |
Unadjusted | 1.00 | 0.73 (0.62–0.86) | 0.53 (0.41–0.68) | 0.62 (0.50–0.77) | <0.0001 |
Model 1 ∫ | 1.00 | 0.78 (0.66–0.92) | 0.57 (0.44–0.73) | 0.67 (0.54–0.84) | <0.0001 |
Model 2 ∬ | 1.00 | 0.85 (0.72–1.01) | 0.64 (0.49–0.83) | 0.76 (0.61–0.96) | 0.004 |
Model 3 ∮ | 1.00 | 0.85 (0.72–1.01) | 0.65 (0.50–0.85) | 0.79 (0.63–0.99) | 0.01 |
Sensitivity analysis § | 3828 (617) | 3455 (443) | 967 (102) | 1326 (132) | |
1.00 | 0.87 (0.73–1.03) | 0.69 (0.52–0.91) | 0.75 (0.58–0.98) | 0.03 | |
Coffee | Never | 0–<1 cup/day | 1–<2 cups/day | ≥2 cups/day | p for trend |
Participants No. (No. of cases) | 964 (196) | 2301 (372) | 2330 (355) | 3981 (520) | |
Unadjusted | 1.00 | 0.68 (0.53–0.87) | 0.62 (0.49–0.79) | 0.60 (0.49–0.74) | <0.0001 |
Model 1 ∫ | 1.00 | 0.73 (0.57–0.93) | 0.61 (0.48–0.78) | 0.67 (0.54-0.83) | 0.001 |
Model 2 ∬ | 1.00 | 0.73 (0.57–0.93) | 0.63 (0.49–0.80) | 0.37 (0.54–0.83) | 0.001 |
Model 3 ∮ | 1.00 | 0.74 (0.58–0.95) | 0.65 (0.51–0.82) | 0.68 (0.55–0.85) | 0.003 |
Sensitivity analysis § | 964 (176) | 2301 (328) | 2330 (319) | 3981 (471) | |
1.00 | 0.73 (0.56–0.95) | 0.66 (0.52–0.85) | 0.70 (0.56–0.95) | 0.006 | |
Caffeine | Q1 (≤22 mg/day) | Q2 (22–≤62 mg/day) | Q3 (62–≤ 122.9 mg/day) | Q4 (>122.9 mg/day) | p for trend |
Participants No. (No. of cases) | 2357 (430) | 2382 (383) | 2444 (345) | 2393 (285) | |
Unadjusted | 1.00 | 0.75 (0.61–0.91) | 0.70 (0.58–0.85) | 0.66 (0.55–0.80) | <0.0001 |
Model 1 ∫ | 1.00 | 0.73 (0.60–0.90) | 0.71 (0.59–0.85) | 0.76 (0.63–0.92) | 0.001 |
Model 2 ∬ | 1.00 | 0.74 (0.60–0.91) | 0.73 (0.61–0.89) | 0.75 (0.62–0.92) | 0.002 |
Model 3 ∮ | 1.00 | 0.74 (0.61–0.91) | 0.74 (0.61–0.89) | 0.76 (0.62–0.92) | 0.003 |
Sensitivity analysis § | 2357 (381) | 2382 (344) | 2444 (307) | 2393 (262) | |
1.00 | 0.77 (0.63–0.94) | 0.75 (0.62–0.91) | 0.80 (0.65–0.97) | 0.009 |
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Kim, J.; Kim, J. Green Tea, Coffee, and Caffeine Consumption Are Inversely Associated with Self-Report Lifetime Depression in the Korean Population. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1201. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10091201
Kim J, Kim J. Green Tea, Coffee, and Caffeine Consumption Are Inversely Associated with Self-Report Lifetime Depression in the Korean Population. Nutrients. 2018; 10(9):1201. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10091201
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Jiwon, and Jihye Kim. 2018. "Green Tea, Coffee, and Caffeine Consumption Are Inversely Associated with Self-Report Lifetime Depression in the Korean Population" Nutrients 10, no. 9: 1201. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10091201